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<h1>N4JS Language Specification</h1>
<div class="details">
<span id="author" class="author">2019-08-08 13:15:33 CEST</span><br>
<span id="revnumber">version 0.9</span>
</div>
<div id="toc" class="toc2">
<div id="toctitle">Table of Contents</div>
<ul class="sectlevel1">
<li><a href="introduction.html#_introduction">1. Introduction</a>
<ul class="sectlevel2">
<li><a href="introduction.html#_notation">1.1. Notation</a>
<ul class="sectlevel3">
<li><a href="introduction.html#_grammar-notation">1.1.1. Grammar Notation</a></li>
<li><a href="introduction.html#_type-judgments-and-rules-and-constraints-notation">1.1.2. Type Judgments and Rules and Constraints Notation</a>
<ul class="sectlevel4">
<li><a href="introduction.html#_typing-rules-and-judgments">1.1.2.1. Typing Rules and Judgments</a></li>
<li><a href="introduction.html#_types-of-an-element">1.1.2.2. Types of an Element</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="introduction.html#_auxiliary-functions">1.2. Auxiliary Functions</a>
<ul class="sectlevel3">
<li><a href="introduction.html#_binding">1.2.1. Binding</a></li>
<li><a href="introduction.html#_merging-types">1.2.2. Merging Types</a>
<ul class="sectlevel4">
<li><a href="introduction.html#_logic-formulas">1.2.2.1. Logic Formulas</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="introduction.html#_symbols-and-font-convention">1.2.3. Symbols and Font Convention</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="grammar.html#_grammar">2. Grammar</a>
<ul class="sectlevel2">
<li><a href="grammar.html#_lexical-conventions">2.1. Lexical Conventions</a>
<ul class="sectlevel3">
<li><a href="grammar.html#_identifier-names-and-identifiers">2.1.1. Identifier Names and Identifiers</a></li>
<li><a href="grammar.html#_this-keyword">2.1.2. This Keyword</a></li>
<li><a href="grammar.html#_regular-expression-literals">2.1.3. Regular Expression Literals</a></li>
<li><a href="grammar.html#_automatic-semicolon-insertion">2.1.4. Automatic Semicolon Insertion</a></li>
<li><a href="grammar.html#_jsdoc">2.1.5. JSDoc</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="names.html#_names">3. Names</a>
<ul class="sectlevel2">
<li><a href="names.html#_access-control">3.1. Access Control</a></li>
<li><a href="names.html#_accessibility-of-types-top-level-variables-and-function-declarations">3.2. Accessibility of Types, Top-Level Variables and Function Declarations</a>
<ul class="sectlevel3">
<li><a href="names.html#_accessibility-of-members">3.2.1. Accessibility of Members</a></li>
<li><a href="names.html#_valid-names">3.2.2. Valid Names</a></li>
<li><a href="names.html#_qualified-names">3.2.3. Qualified Names</a></li>
<li><a href="names.html#_name-duplicates">3.2.4. Name Duplicates</a>
<ul class="sectlevel4">
<li><a href="names.html#_lexical-environment">3.2.4.1. Lexical Environment</a></li>
<li><a href="names.html#_duplicates-and-shadowing">3.2.4.2. Duplicates and Shadowing</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="types.html#_types">4. Types</a>
<ul class="sectlevel2">
<li><a href="types.html#_overview">4.1. Overview</a></li>
<li><a href="types.html#_type-expressions">4.2. Type Expressions</a>
<ul class="sectlevel3">
<li><a href="types.html#_syntax">4.2.1. Syntax</a></li>
<li><a href="types.html#_properties">4.2.2. Properties</a></li>
<li><a href="types.html#_semantics">4.2.3. Semantics</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="types.html#_type-inference">4.3. Type Inference</a></li>
<li><a href="types.html#_generic-and-parameterized-types">4.4. Generic and Parameterized Types</a>
<ul class="sectlevel3">
<li><a href="types.html#_generic-types">4.4.1. Generic Types</a></li>
<li><a href="types.html#_type-variables">4.4.2. Type Variables</a></li>
<li><a href="types.html#_parameterized-types">4.4.3. Parameterized Types</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="types.html#_primitive-ecmascript-types">4.5. Primitive ECMAScript Types</a>
<ul class="sectlevel3">
<li><a href="types.html#_undefined-type">4.5.1. Undefined Type</a></li>
<li><a href="types.html#_null-type">4.5.2. Null Type</a></li>
<li><a href="types.html#_primitive-boolean-type">4.5.3. Primitive Boolean Type</a></li>
<li><a href="types.html#_primitive-string-type">4.5.4. Primitive String Type</a></li>
<li><a href="types.html#_primitive-number-type">4.5.5. Primitive Number Type</a></li>
<li><a href="types.html#_primitive-type-int">4.5.6. Primitive Type int</a></li>
<li><a href="types.html#_primitive-symbol-type">4.5.7. Primitive Symbol Type</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="types.html#_primitive-n4js-types">4.6. Primitive N4JS Types</a>
<ul class="sectlevel3">
<li><a href="types.html#_any-type">4.6.1. Any Type</a>
<ul class="sectlevel4">
<li><a href="types.html#any-type-semantics">4.6.1.1. Semantics</a></li>
<li><a href="types.html#any-type-type-inference">4.6.1.2. Type Inference</a>
<ul class="sectlevel5">
<li><a href="types.html#_default-type-of-variables">4.6.1.2.1. Default Type of Variables</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="types.html#_void-type">4.6.2. Void Type</a>
<ul class="sectlevel4">
<li><a href="types.html#void-type-semantics">4.6.2.1. Semantics</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="types.html#_unknown-type">4.6.3. Unknown Type</a></li>
<li><a href="types.html#_primitive-pathselector-and-i18nkey">4.6.4. Primitive Pathselector and I18nKey</a>
<ul class="sectlevel4">
<li><a href="types.html#pathselector-semantics">4.6.4.1. Semantics</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="types.html#_built-in-ecmascript-object-types">4.7. Built-in ECMAScript Object Types</a>
<ul class="sectlevel3">
<li><a href="types.html#ECMAScript-objects-semantics">4.7.1. Semantics</a></li>
<li><a href="types.html#_object-type">4.7.2. Object Type</a></li>
<li><a href="types.html#_function-object-type">4.7.3. Function-Object-Type</a></li>
<li><a href="types.html#_array-object-type">4.7.4. Array Object Type</a></li>
<li><a href="types.html#_string-object-type">4.7.5. String Object Type</a></li>
<li><a href="types.html#_boolean-object-type">4.7.6. Boolean Object Type</a></li>
<li><a href="types.html#_number-object-type">4.7.7. Number Object Type</a></li>
<li><a href="types.html#_global-object-type">4.7.8. Global Object Type</a></li>
<li><a href="types.html#_symbol">4.7.9. Symbol</a></li>
<li><a href="types.html#_promise">4.7.10. Promise</a></li>
<li><a href="types.html#_iterator-interface">4.7.11. Iterator Interface</a></li>
<li><a href="types.html#_iterable-interface">4.7.12. Iterable Interface</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="types.html#_built-in-n4js-types">4.8. Built-In N4JS Types</a>
<ul class="sectlevel3">
<li><a href="types.html#_n4object">4.8.1. N4Object</a>
<ul class="sectlevel4">
<li><a href="types.html#N4Object-semantics">4.8.1.1. Semantics</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="types.html#_n4class">4.8.2. N4Class</a></li>
<li><a href="types.html#IterableN">4.8.3. IterableN</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="types.html#_type-modifiers">4.9. Type Modifiers</a>
<ul class="sectlevel3">
<li><a href="types.html#Type_Modifiers_Dynamic">4.9.1. Dynamic</a></li>
<li><a href="types.html#_optional-return-types">4.9.2. Optional Return Types</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="types.html#_union-and-intersection-type-composed-types">4.10. Union and Intersection Type (Composed Types)</a>
<ul class="sectlevel3">
<li><a href="types.html#_union-type">4.10.1. Union Type</a>
<ul class="sectlevel4">
<li><a href="types.html#union-type-syntax">4.10.1.1. Syntax</a></li>
<li><a href="types.html#union-type-semantics">4.10.1.2. Semantics</a></li>
<li><a href="types.html#_warnings">4.10.1.3. Warnings</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="types.html#_intersection-type">4.10.2. Intersection Type</a>
<ul class="sectlevel4">
<li><a href="types.html#intersection-type-syntax">4.10.2.1. Syntax</a></li>
<li><a href="types.html#intersection-type-semantics">4.10.2.2. Semantics</a></li>
<li><a href="types.html#_warnings-2">4.10.2.3. Warnings</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="types.html#_composed-types-in-wildcards">4.10.3. Composed Types in Wildcards</a></li>
<li><a href="types.html#_property-access-for-composed-types">4.10.4. Property Access for Composed Types</a>
<ul class="sectlevel4">
<li><a href="types.html#_properties-of-union-type">4.10.4.1. Properties of Union Type</a>
<ul class="sectlevel5">
<li><a href="types.html#_remarks-on-union-type-s-members">4.10.4.1.1. Remarks on union type’s members:</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="types.html#_properties-of-intersection-type">4.10.4.2. Properties of Intersection Type</a>
<ul class="sectlevel5">
<li><a href="types.html#_remarks-on-intersection-type-s-methods">4.10.4.2.1. Remarks on intersection type’s methods:</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="types.html#_constructor-and-classifier-type">4.11. Constructor and Classifier Type</a>
<ul class="sectlevel3">
<li><a href="types.html#_syntax-3">4.11.1. Syntax</a></li>
<li><a href="types.html#_semantics-2">4.11.2. Semantics</a></li>
<li><a href="types.html#_constructors-and-prototypes-in-ecmascript-2015">4.11.3. Constructors and Prototypes in ECMAScript 2015</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="types.html#_this-type">4.12. This Type</a>
<ul class="sectlevel3">
<li><a href="types.html#this-type-syntax">4.12.1. Syntax</a></li>
<li><a href="types.html#this-keyword-semantics">4.12.2. Semantics</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="types.html#_enums">4.13. Enums</a>
<ul class="sectlevel3">
<li><a href="types.html#_enums-n4js">4.13.1. Enums (N4JS)</a>
<ul class="sectlevel4">
<li><a href="types.html#enums-syntax">4.13.1.1. Syntax</a></li>
<li><a href="types.html#enums-semantics">4.13.1.2. Semantics</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="types.html#_string-based-enums">4.13.2. String-Based Enums</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="types.html#_short-hand-syntax">4.14. Short-Hand Syntax</a>
<ul class="sectlevel3">
<li><a href="types.html#_array-short-hand-syntax">4.14.1. Array Short-Hand Syntax</a></li>
<li><a href="types.html#_iterablen-short-hand-syntax">4.14.2. IterableN Short-Hand Syntax</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_classifiers">5. Classifiers</a>
<ul class="sectlevel2">
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_n4js-specific-classifiers">5.1. N4JS Specific Classifiers</a>
<ul class="sectlevel3">
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_properties-2">5.1.1. Properties</a></li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_common-semantics-of-classifiers">5.1.2. Common Semantics of Classifiers</a></li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_classes">5.1.3. Classes</a>
<ul class="sectlevel4">
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_definition-of-classes">5.1.3.1. Definition of Classes</a>
<ul class="sectlevel5">
<li><a href="classifiers.html#class-syntax">5.1.3.1.1. Syntax</a></li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#class-properties">5.1.3.1.2. Properties</a></li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#class-type-inference">5.1.3.1.3. Type Inference</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#class-semantics">5.1.3.2. Semantics</a></li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_final-modifier">5.1.3.3. Final Modifier</a></li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_abstract-classes">5.1.3.4. Abstract Classes</a></li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_non-instantiable-classes">5.1.3.5. Non-Instantiable Classes</a></li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_superclass">5.1.3.6. Superclass</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_interfaces">5.1.4. Interfaces</a>
<ul class="sectlevel4">
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_definition-of-interfaces">5.1.4.1. Definition of Interfaces</a>
<ul class="sectlevel5">
<li><a href="classifiers.html#interfaces-syntax">5.1.4.1.1. Syntax</a></li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#interfaces-properties">5.1.4.1.2. Properties</a></li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#interfaces-type-inference">5.1.4.1.3. Type Inference</a></li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#interfaces-semantics">5.1.4.1.4. Semantics</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_generic-classifiers">5.1.5. Generic Classifiers</a></li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#sec:definition-site-variance">5.1.6. Definition-Site Variance</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_members">5.2. Members</a>
<ul class="sectlevel3">
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_syntax-4">5.2.1. Syntax</a>
<ul class="sectlevel4">
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_properties-3">5.2.1.1. Properties</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_semantics-3">5.2.2. Semantics</a></li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_methods">5.2.3. Methods</a>
<ul class="sectlevel4">
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_syntax-5">5.2.3.1. Syntax</a></li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_properties-4">5.2.3.2. Properties</a></li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_semantics-4">5.2.3.3. Semantics</a></li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_final-methods">5.2.3.4. Final Methods</a></li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_abstract-methods">5.2.3.5. Abstract Methods</a></li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_generic-methods">5.2.3.6. Generic Methods</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_default-methods-in-interfaces">5.2.4. Default Methods in Interfaces</a>
<ul class="sectlevel4">
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_asynchronous-methods">5.2.4.1. Asynchronous Methods</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_constructors">5.2.5. Constructors</a>
<ul class="sectlevel4">
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_structural-this-type-in-constructor">5.2.5.1. Structural This Type in Constructor</a></li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#spec-constructor">5.2.5.2. @Spec Constructor</a></li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_callable-constructors">5.2.5.3. Callable Constructors</a></li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_covariant-constructors">5.2.5.4. Covariant Constructors</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_data-fields">5.2.6. Data Fields</a>
<ul class="sectlevel4">
<li><a href="classifiers.html#data-fields-syntax">5.2.6.1. Syntax</a></li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#data-fields-properties">5.2.6.2. Properties</a>
<ul class="sectlevel5">
<li><a href="classifiers.html#data-fields-semantics">5.2.6.2.1. Semantics</a></li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#data-fields-type-inference">5.2.6.2.2. Type Inference</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_assignment-modifiers">5.2.6.3. Assignment Modifiers</a></li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_field-accessors-getter-setter">5.2.6.4. Field Accessors (Getter/Setter)</a>
<ul class="sectlevel5">
<li><a href="classifiers.html#field-acessors-syntax">5.2.6.4.1. Syntax</a></li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#field-acessors-properties">5.2.6.4.2. Properties</a></li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#field-accessors-semantics">5.2.6.4.3. Semantics</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#optional-fields">5.2.6.5. Optional Fields</a>
<ul class="sectlevel5">
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_syntax-6">5.2.6.5.1. Syntax</a></li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_semantics-5">5.2.6.5.2. Semantics</a></li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_background">5.2.6.5.3. Background</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_static-members">5.2.7. Static Members</a>
<ul class="sectlevel4">
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_access-from-and-to-static-members">5.2.7.1. Access From and To Static Members</a></li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_generic-static-methods">5.2.7.2. Generic static methods</a></li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_static-members-of-interfaces">5.2.7.3. Static Members of Interfaces</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_redefinition-of-members">5.2.8. Redefinition of Members</a>
<ul class="sectlevel4">
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_overriding-of-members">5.2.8.1. Overriding of Members</a></li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_implementation-of-members">5.2.8.2. Implementation of Members</a>
<ul class="sectlevel5">
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_member-consumption">5.2.8.2.1. Member Consumption</a></li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_member-implementation">5.2.8.2.2. Member Implementation</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_structural-typing">5.3. Structural Typing</a>
<ul class="sectlevel3">
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_syntax-7">5.3.1. Syntax</a></li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_definition-site-structural-typing">5.3.2. Definition Site Structural Typing</a></li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_use-site-structural-typing">5.3.3. Use-Site Structural Typing</a></li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#structural-readWriteInit-field-typing">5.3.4. Structural Read-only, Write-only and Initializer Field Typing</a></li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_public-setter-annotated-with-code-providesinitializer-code">5.3.5. Public Setter Annotated With <code>ProvidesInitializer</code></a></li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_structural-types-with-optional-fields">5.3.6. Structural Types With Optional Fields</a></li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_structural-types-with-access-modifier">5.3.7. Structural Types With Access Modifier</a></li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_structural-types-with-additional-members">5.3.8. Structural Types With Additional Members</a>
<ul class="sectlevel4">
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_syntax-8">5.3.8.1. Syntax</a>
<ul class="sectlevel5">
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_semantics-6">5.3.8.1.1. Semantics</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="functions.html#_functions">6. Functions</a>
<ul class="sectlevel2">
<li><a href="functions.html#_function-type">6.1. Function Type</a>
<ul class="sectlevel3">
<li><a href="functions.html#_properties-5">6.1.1. Properties</a></li>
<li><a href="functions.html#function-type-inference">6.1.2. Type Inference</a></li>
<li><a href="functions.html#_autoboxing-of-function-type">6.1.3. Autoboxing of Function Type</a></li>
<li><a href="functions.html#_arguments-object">6.1.4. Arguments Object</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="functions.html#_ecmascript-5-function-definition">6.2. ECMAScript 5 Function Definition</a>
<ul class="sectlevel3">
<li><a href="functions.html#_function-declaration">6.2.1. Function Declaration</a>
<ul class="sectlevel4">
<li><a href="functions.html#_syntax-9">6.2.1.1. Syntax</a></li>
<li><a href="functions.html#_semantics-8">6.2.1.2. Semantics</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="functions.html#_function-expression">6.2.2. Function Expression</a>
<ul class="sectlevel4">
<li><a href="functions.html#function-expression-syntax">6.2.2.1. Syntax</a></li>
<li><a href="functions.html#_semantics-and-type-inference">6.2.2.2. Semantics and Type Inference</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="functions.html#_ecmascript-2015-function-definition">6.3. ECMAScript 2015 Function Definition</a>
<ul class="sectlevel3">
<li><a href="functions.html#_formal-parameters">6.3.1. Formal Parameters</a>
<ul class="sectlevel4">
<li><a href="functions.html#Type_Modifiers_Optional">6.3.1.1. Optional Parameters</a></li>
<li><a href="functions.html#Type_Modifiers_Default">6.3.1.2. Default Parameters</a></li>
<li><a href="functions.html#Type_Modifiers_Variadic">6.3.1.3. Variadic</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="functions.html#_generator-functions">6.3.2. Generator Functions</a>
<ul class="sectlevel4">
<li><a href="functions.html#generator-functions-syntax">6.3.2.1. Syntax</a></li>
<li><a href="functions.html#generator-functions-semantics">6.3.2.2. Semantics</a></li>
<li><a href="functions.html#_generator-arrow-functions">6.3.2.3. Generator Arrow Functions</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="functions.html#_arrow-function-expression">6.3.3. Arrow Function Expression</a>
<ul class="sectlevel4">
<li><a href="functions.html#arrow-function-expression-syntax">6.3.3.1. Syntax</a></li>
<li><a href="functions.html#arrow-function-expression-semantics-and-type-inference">6.3.3.2. Semantics and Type Inference</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="functions.html#_ecmascript-proposals-function-definition">6.4. ECMAScript Proposals Function Definition</a>
<ul class="sectlevel3">
<li><a href="functions.html#_asynchronous-functions">6.4.1. Asynchronous Functions</a>
<ul class="sectlevel4">
<li><a href="functions.html#asynchronous-functions-syntax">6.4.1.1. Syntax</a></li>
<li><a href="functions.html#asynchronous-functions-semantics">6.4.1.2. Semantics</a></li>
<li><a href="functions.html#_asynchronous-arrow-functions">6.4.1.3. Asynchronous Arrow Functions</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="functions.html#_n4js-extended-function-definition">6.5. N4JS Extended Function Definition</a>
<ul class="sectlevel3">
<li><a href="functions.html#_generic-functions">6.5.1. Generic Functions</a></li>
<li><a href="functions.html#_promisifiable-functions">6.5.2. Promisifiable Functions</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="#_conversions-and-reflection">7. Conversions and Reflection</a>
<ul class="sectlevel2">
<li><a href="#_autoboxing-and-coercing">7.1. Autoboxing and Coercing</a>
<ul class="sectlevel3">
<li><a href="#_coercing">7.1.1. Coercing</a></li>
<li><a href="#_autoboxing-of-primitives">7.1.2. Autoboxing of Primitives</a></li>
<li><a href="#_autoboxing-of-function-expressions-and-declarations">7.1.3. Autoboxing of Function Expressions and Declarations</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="#_auto-conversion-of-objects">7.2. Auto-Conversion of Objects</a>
<ul class="sectlevel3">
<li><a href="#_auto-conversion-of-class-instances">7.2.1. Auto-Conversion of Class Instances</a>
<ul class="sectlevel4">
<li><a href="#_auto-conversion-of-interface-instances">7.2.1.1. Auto-Conversion of Interface Instances</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="#_auto-conversion-of-enum-literals">7.2.2. Auto-Conversion of Enum Literals</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="#_type-cast-and-type-check">7.3. Type Cast and Type Check</a>
<ul class="sectlevel3">
<li><a href="#_type-cast">7.3.1. Type Cast</a></li>
<li><a href="#_type-check">7.3.2. Type Check</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="#_reflection-meta-information">7.4. Reflection meta-information</a>
<ul class="sectlevel3">
<li><a href="#_reflection-for-classes">7.4.1. Reflection for Classes</a></li>
<li><a href="#_reflection-for-interfaces">7.4.2. Reflection for Interfaces</a></li>
<li><a href="#_reflection-for-enumerations">7.4.3. Reflection for Enumerations</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="#_conversion-of-primitive-types">7.5. Conversion of primitive types</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="expressions.html#_expressions">8. Expressions</a>
<ul class="sectlevel2">
<li><a href="expressions.html#_ecmascript-5-expressions">8.1. ECMAScript 5 Expressions</a>
<ul class="sectlevel3">
<li><a href="expressions.html#_the-this-literal">8.1.1. The this Literal</a></li>
<li><a href="expressions.html#_identifier">8.1.2. Identifier</a></li>
<li><a href="expressions.html#_literals">8.1.3. Literals</a>
<ul class="sectlevel4">
<li><a href="expressions.html#_integer-literals">8.1.3.1. Integer Literals</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="expressions.html#_array-literal">8.1.4. Array Literal</a></li>
<li><a href="expressions.html#_object-literal">8.1.5. Object Literal</a>
<ul class="sectlevel4">
<li><a href="expressions.html#_properties-6">8.1.5.1. Properties</a></li>
<li><a href="expressions.html#_scoping-and-linking">8.1.5.2. Scoping and linking</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="expressions.html#_parenthesized-expression-and-grouping-operator">8.1.6. Parenthesized Expression and Grouping Operator</a></li>
<li><a href="expressions.html#_property-accessors">8.1.7. Property Accessors</a>
<ul class="sectlevel4">
<li><a href="expressions.html#properties-1">8.1.7.1. Properties</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="expressions.html#_new-expression">8.1.8. New Expression</a></li>
<li><a href="expressions.html#_function-expression-2">8.1.9. Function Expression</a></li>
<li><a href="expressions.html#_function-calls">8.1.10. Function Calls</a></li>
<li><a href="expressions.html#_postfix-expression">8.1.11. Postfix Expression</a></li>
<li><a href="expressions.html#_unary-expression">8.1.12. Unary Expression</a></li>
<li><a href="expressions.html#_multiplicative-expression">8.1.13. Multiplicative Expression</a></li>
<li><a href="expressions.html#_additive-expression">8.1.14. Additive Expression</a>
<ul class="sectlevel4">
<li><a href="expressions.html#type-inference-10">8.1.14.1. Type Inference</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="expressions.html#_bitwise-shift-expression">8.1.15. Bitwise Shift Expression</a></li>
<li><a href="expressions.html#_relational-expression">8.1.16. Relational Expression</a></li>
<li><a href="expressions.html#_equality-expression">8.1.17. Equality Expression</a></li>
<li><a href="expressions.html#_binary-bitwise-expression">8.1.18. Binary Bitwise Expression</a></li>
<li><a href="expressions.html#_binary-logical-expression">8.1.19. Binary Logical Expression</a></li>
<li><a href="expressions.html#_conditional-expression">8.1.20. Conditional Expression</a></li>
<li><a href="expressions.html#_assignment-expression">8.1.21. Assignment Expression</a></li>
<li><a href="expressions.html#_comma-expression">8.1.22. Comma Expression</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="expressions.html#_ecmascript-6-expressions">8.2. ECMAScript 6 Expressions</a>
<ul class="sectlevel3">
<li><a href="expressions.html#_the-super-keyword">8.2.1. The super Keyword</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="expressions.html#_ecmascript-7-expressions">8.3. ECMAScript 7 Expressions</a>
<ul class="sectlevel3">
<li><a href="expressions.html#_await-expression">8.3.1. Await Expression</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="expressions.html#_n4js-specific-expressions">8.4. N4JS Specific Expressions</a>
<ul class="sectlevel3">
<li><a href="expressions.html#_class-expression">8.4.1. Class Expression</a></li>
<li><a href="expressions.html#_cast-as-expression">8.4.2. Cast (As) Expression</a>
<ul class="sectlevel4">
<li><a href="expressions.html#cast-as-expression-semantics-type-inference">8.4.2.1. Semantics and Type Inference</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="expressions.html#Import_Calls">8.4.3. Import Calls</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="expressions.html#compile-time-expressions">8.5. Compile-Time Expressions</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="statements.html#_statements">9. Statements</a>
<ul class="sectlevel2">
<li><a href="statements.html#_ecmascript-5-statements">9.1. ECMAScript 5 Statements</a>
<ul class="sectlevel3">
<li><a href="statements.html#_function-or-field-accessor-bodies">9.1.1. Function or Field Accessor Bodies</a></li>
<li><a href="statements.html#_variable-statement">9.1.2. Variable Statement</a></li>
<li><a href="statements.html#_if-statement">9.1.3. If Statement</a></li>
<li><a href="statements.html#_iteration-statements">9.1.4. Iteration Statements</a></li>
<li><a href="statements.html#_return-statement">9.1.5. Return Statement</a></li>
<li><a href="statements.html#_with-statement">9.1.6. With Statement</a></li>
<li><a href="statements.html#_switch-statement">9.1.7. Switch Statement</a></li>
<li><a href="statements.html#_throw-try-and-catch-statements">9.1.8. Throw, Try, and Catch Statements</a></li>
<li><a href="statements.html#_debugger-statement">9.1.9. Debugger Statement</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="statements.html#_ecmascript-6-statements">9.2. ECMAScript 6 Statements</a>
<ul class="sectlevel3">
<li><a href="statements.html#_let">9.2.1. Let</a></li>
<li><a href="statements.html#_const">9.2.2. Const</a></li>
<li><a href="statements.html#_for-of-statement">9.2.3. <code>for &#8230;&#8203; of</code> statement</a></li>
<li><a href="statements.html#_import-statement">9.2.4. Import Statement</a>
<ul class="sectlevel4">
<li><a href="statements.html#Dynamic_Imports">9.2.4.1. Dynamic Imports</a></li>
<li><a href="statements.html#_immutabilaty-of-imports">9.2.4.2. Immutabilaty of Imports</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="statements.html#_export-statement">9.2.5. Export Statement</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="annotations.html#_annotations">10. Annotations</a>
<ul class="sectlevel2">
<li><a href="annotations.html#_introduction-2">10.1. Introduction</a>
<ul class="sectlevel3">
<li><a href="annotations.html#_syntax-13">10.1.1. Syntax</a></li>
<li><a href="annotations.html#_properties-7">10.1.2. Properties</a></li>
<li><a href="annotations.html#_element-specific-annotations">10.1.3. Element-Specific Annotations</a></li>
<li><a href="annotations.html#_general-annotations">10.1.4. General Annotations</a>
<ul class="sectlevel4">
<li><a href="annotations.html#_idebug">10.1.4.1. IDEBUG</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="annotations.html#idebug-syntax">10.1.5. Syntax</a>
<ul class="sectlevel4">
<li><a href="annotations.html#_semantics-11">10.1.5.1. Semantics</a></li>
<li><a href="annotations.html#_suppress-warnings">10.1.5.2. Suppress Warnings</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="annotations.html#_declaration-of-annotations">10.2. Declaration of Annotations</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="extended_fetaures.html#_extended-fetaures">11. Extended Fetaures</a>
<ul class="sectlevel2">
<li><a href="extended_fetaures.html#_array-and-object-destructuring">11.1. Array and Object Destructuring</a>
<ul class="sectlevel3">
<li><a href="extended_fetaures.html#_syntax-14">11.1.1. Syntax</a></li>
<li><a href="extended_fetaures.html#_semantics-12">11.1.2. Semantics</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="extended_fetaures.html#_dependency-injection">11.2. Dependency Injection</a>
<ul class="sectlevel3">
<li><a href="extended_fetaures.html#_di-components-and-injectors">11.2.1. DI Components and Injectors</a>
<ul class="sectlevel4">
<li><a href="extended_fetaures.html#_dicomponent-relations">11.2.1.1. DIComponent Relations</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="extended_fetaures.html#_binders-and-bindings">11.2.2. Binders and Bindings</a></li>
<li><a href="extended_fetaures.html#_injection-points">11.2.3. Injection Points</a>
<ul class="sectlevel4">
<li><a href="extended_fetaures.html#_field-injection">11.2.3.1. Field Injection</a></li>
<li><a href="extended_fetaures.html#_constructor-injection">11.2.3.2. Constructor Injection</a></li>
<li><a href="extended_fetaures.html#_method-injection">11.2.3.3. Method Injection</a>
<ul class="sectlevel5">
<li><a href="extended_fetaures.html#_provider">11.2.3.3.1. Provider</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="extended_fetaures.html#_n4js-di-life-cycle-and-scopes">11.2.4. N4JS DI Life Cycle and Scopes</a>
<ul class="sectlevel4">
<li><a href="extended_fetaures.html#_injection-cylces">11.2.4.1. Injection Cylces</a></li>
<li><a href="extended_fetaures.html#_default-scope">11.2.4.2. Default Scope</a></li>
<li><a href="extended_fetaures.html#_singleton-scope">11.2.4.3. Singleton Scope</a></li>
<li><a href="extended_fetaures.html#_per-injection-chain-singleton">11.2.4.4. Per Injection Chain Singleton</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="extended_fetaures.html#_validation-of-callsites-targeting-n4injector-methods">11.2.5. Validation of callsites targeting N4Injector methods</a></li>
<li><a href="extended_fetaures.html#_n4js-di-annotations">11.2.6. N4JS DI Annotations</a>
<ul class="sectlevel4">
<li><a href="extended_fetaures.html#_n4js-di-generateinjector">11.2.6.1. N4JS DI @GenerateInjector</a></li>
<li><a href="extended_fetaures.html#_n4js-di-withparentinjector">11.2.6.2. N4JS DI @WithParentInjector</a></li>
<li><a href="extended_fetaures.html#_n4js-di-usebinder">11.2.6.3. N4JS DI @UseBinder</a></li>
<li><a href="extended_fetaures.html#_n4js-di-binder">11.2.6.4. N4JS DI @Binder</a></li>
<li><a href="extended_fetaures.html#_n4js-di-bind">11.2.6.5. N4JS DI @Bind</a></li>
<li><a href="extended_fetaures.html#_n4js-di-provides">11.2.6.6. N4JS DI @Provides</a></li>
<li><a href="extended_fetaures.html#_n4js-di-inject">11.2.6.7. N4JS DI @Inject</a></li>
<li><a href="extended_fetaures.html#_n4js-di-singleton">11.2.6.8. N4JS DI @Singleton</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="extended_fetaures.html#_test-support">11.3. Test Support</a></li>
<li><a href="extended_fetaures.html#_polyfill-definitions">11.4. Polyfill Definitions</a>
<ul class="sectlevel3">
<li><a href="extended_fetaures.html#_runtime-polyfill-definitions">11.4.1. Runtime Polyfill Definitions</a></li>
<li><a href="extended_fetaures.html#_static-polyfill-definitions">11.4.2. Static Polyfill Definitions</a></li>
<li><a href="extended_fetaures.html#_transpiling-static-polyfilled-classes">11.4.3. Transpiling static polyfilled classes</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="components.html#_components">12. Components</a>
<ul class="sectlevel2">
<li><a href="components.html#_overview-2">12.1. Overview</a></li>
<li><a href="components.html#Component_Types">12.2. Component Types</a>
<ul class="sectlevel3">
<li><a href="components.html#_libraries">12.2.1. Libraries</a></li>
<li><a href="components.html#_runtime-environment-and-runtime-libraries">12.2.2. Runtime Environment and Runtime Libraries</a></li>
<li><a href="components.html#_tests">12.2.3. Tests</a></li>
<li><a href="components.html#_type-definitions">12.2.4. Type Definitions</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="components.html#package-json">12.3. Package.json File</a>
<ul class="sectlevel3">
<li><a href="components.html#_basic-properties">12.3.1. Basic Properties</a></li>
<li><a href="components.html#_n4js-properties">12.3.2. N4JS Properties</a></li>
<li><a href="components.html#_constraints">12.3.3. Constraints</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="components.html#_support-for-npm-scopes">12.4. Support for NPM Scopes</a></li>
<li><a href="components.html#sec:N4JS-Type-Definitions">12.5. N4JS Type Definitions</a>
<ul class="sectlevel3">
<li><a href="components.html#_specify-type-definition">12.5.1. Specify Type Definition</a></li>
<li><a href="components.html#_name-conventions">12.5.2. Name Conventions</a></li>
<li><a href="components.html#_version-conventions">12.5.3. Version Conventions</a>
<ul class="sectlevel4">
<li><a href="components.html#_define-a-new-type-definition-package">12.5.3.1. Define a New Type Definition Package</a></li>
<li><a href="components.html#_using-a-type-definition-package">12.5.3.2. Using a Type Definition Package</a></li>
<li><a href="components.html#_rational">12.5.3.3. Rational</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="components.html#_modules">12.6. Modules</a></li>
<li><a href="components.html#_api-and-implementation-component">12.7. API and Implementation Component</a>
<ul class="sectlevel3">
<li><a href="components.html#_execution-of-api-and-implementation-components">12.7.1. Execution of API and Implementation Components</a></li>
<li><a href="components.html#_api-and-implementation-with-di">12.7.2. API and Implementation With DI</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="plainjs.html#_plainjs">13. PlainJS</a>
<ul class="sectlevel2">
<li><a href="plainjs.html#_type-inference-and-validation-for-plain-js">13.1. Type Inference and Validation for Plain JS</a></li>
<li><a href="plainjs.html#_external-declarations">13.2. External Declarations</a>
<ul class="sectlevel3">
<li><a href="plainjs.html#_declaring-externals">13.2.1. Declaring externals</a></li>
<li><a href="plainjs.html#_instantiating-external-classes">13.2.2. Instantiating external classes</a></li>
<li><a href="plainjs.html#_implementation-of-external-declarations">13.2.3. Implementation of External Declarations</a></li>
<li><a href="plainjs.html#_example">13.2.4. Example</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="plainjs.html#_global-definitions">13.3. Global Definitions</a></li>
<li><a href="plainjs.html#_runtime-definitions">13.4. Runtime Definitions</a></li>
<li><a href="plainjs.html#_applying-polyfills">13.5. Applying Polyfills</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="jsdoc.html#_jsdoc-2">14. JSDoc</a>
<ul class="sectlevel2">
<li><a href="jsdoc.html#_general-n4jsdoc-features">14.1. General N4JSDoc Features</a>
<ul class="sectlevel3">
<li><a href="jsdoc.html#_provided-inline-tags">14.1.1. Provided Inline Tags</a>
<ul class="sectlevel4">
<li><a href="jsdoc.html#jsdoc_tag__code">14.1.1.1. @code</a></li>
<li><a href="jsdoc.html#jsdoc_tag__link">14.1.1.2. @link</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="jsdoc.html#_n4jsdoc-for-user-projects">14.2. N4JSdoc for User Projects</a>
<ul class="sectlevel3">
<li><a href="jsdoc.html#_standard-tags">14.2.1. Standard Tags</a>
<ul class="sectlevel4">
<li><a href="jsdoc.html#_-author">14.2.1.1. @author</a></li>
<li><a href="jsdoc.html#jsdoc_tag_param">14.2.1.2. @param</a></li>
<li><a href="jsdoc.html#jsdoc_tag_return">14.2.1.3. @return</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="jsdoc.html#_test-related-tags">14.2.2. Test Related Tags</a>
<ul class="sectlevel4">
<li><a href="jsdoc.html#jsdoc_tag__testee">14.2.2.1. @testee</a></li>
<li><a href="jsdoc.html#jsdoc_tag__testeeFromType">14.2.2.2. @testeeFromType</a></li>
<li><a href="jsdoc.html#_testeeType_and__testeeMember">14.2.2.3. @testeeType and @testeeMember</a></li>
<li><a href="jsdoc.html#jsdoc_tag_reqid_in_Tests">14.2.2.4. @reqid in Tests</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="jsdoc.html#_n4jsdoc-for-api-and-implementation-projects">14.3. N4JSDoc for API and Implementation Projects</a>
<ul class="sectlevel3">
<li><a href="jsdoc.html#jsdoc_tag__apiNote">14.3.1. @apiNote</a></li>
<li><a href="jsdoc.html#API_Project_Tags">14.3.2. API Project Tags</a>
<ul class="sectlevel4">
<li><a href="jsdoc.html#jsdoc_tag_apiState">14.3.2.1. @apiState</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="jsx.html#_jsx">15. JSX</a>
<ul class="sectlevel2">
<li><a href="jsx.html#_jsx-support">15.1. JSX Support</a></li>
<li><a href="jsx.html#_jsx-backend">15.2. JSX Backend</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="grammars.html#_grammars">16. Grammars</a>
<ul class="sectlevel2">
<li><a href="grammars.html#_type-expressions-grammar">16.1. Type Expressions Grammar</a></li>
<li><a href="grammars.html#_n4js-language-grammar">16.2. N4JS Language Grammar</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="jsobjects.html#_jsobjects">17. JSObjects</a>
<ul class="sectlevel2">
<li><a href="jsobjects.html#_object">17.1. Object</a></li>
<li><a href="jsobjects.html#_string">17.2. String</a></li>
<li><a href="jsobjects.html#_boolean">17.3. Boolean</a></li>
<li><a href="jsobjects.html#_number">17.4. Number</a>
<ul class="sectlevel3">
<li><a href="jsobjects.html#_static-attributes">17.4.1. Static Attributes</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="jsobjects.html#function">17.5. Function</a></li>
<li><a href="jsobjects.html#_error">17.6. Error</a></li>
<li><a href="jsobjects.html#_array">17.7. Array</a></li>
<li><a href="jsobjects.html#_date">17.8. Date</a></li>
<li><a href="jsobjects.html#_math">17.9. Math</a>
<ul class="sectlevel3">
<li><a href="jsobjects.html#static-attributes-1">17.9.1. Static Attributes</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="jsobjects.html#_regexp">17.10. RegExp</a></li>
<li><a href="jsobjects.html#_json">17.11. JSON</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="n4js_objects.html#_n4js-objects">18. N4JS Objects</a>
<ul class="sectlevel2">
<li><a href="n4js_objects.html#_reflection-model">18.1. Reflection Model</a></li>
<li><a href="n4js_objects.html#_error-types">18.2. Error Types</a>
<ul class="sectlevel3">
<li><a href="n4js_objects.html#_n4apinotimplemented">18.2.1. N4ApiNotImplemented</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="appendix_a_acronyms.html#_acronyms">Appendix A: Acronyms</a></li>
<li><a href="appendix_b_license.html#sec:License">Appendix B: License</a></li>
<li><a href="appendix_c_bibliography.html#_bibliography">Appendix C: Bibliography</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
<div id="content"><div class="sect1">
<h2 id="_conversions-and-reflection"><a class="anchor" href="#_conversions-and-reflection"></a><a class="link" href="#_conversions-and-reflection">7. Conversions and Reflection</a></h2>
<div class="sectionbody">
<div class="sect2 language-n4js">
<h3 id="_autoboxing-and-coercing"><a class="anchor" href="#_autoboxing-and-coercing"></a><a class="link" href="#_autoboxing-and-coercing">7.1. Autoboxing and Coercing</a></h3>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>Coercing is the ability to implicitly cast one (primitive) type to another.
Autoboxing is a special kind of coercing in that is the ability to automatically convert a primitive value type, such as <code>string</code>, <code>number</code>, or <code>boolean</code>,
to its corresponding Object type version <code>String</code>, <code>Number</code>, <code>Boolean</code>.
The capital letters in the latter are an essential distinction.</p>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>Conversion between primitives and object-representations of a datatype are not automatic in N4JS. Only in the cases of object-method invocations on a primitive type
(for <code>string</code> to call <code>"abc".length</code>, for example) automatic conversion is applied.</p>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>Note that N4JS specific primitive types <code>pathselector</code> and <code>i18nkey</code> are handled similarly to <code>string</code>.</p>
</div>
<div class="sect3">
<h4 id="_coercing"><a class="anchor" href="#_coercing"></a><a class="link" href="#_coercing">7.1.1. Coercing</a></h4>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>In [<a href="appendix_c_bibliography.html#ECMA11a">ECMA11a</a>], coercing is defined by means of the abstract specification method <code>ToPrimitive</code> [<a href="appendix_c_bibliography.html#ECMA11a">ECMA11a(p.S9.1)</a>], also see [<a href="appendix_c_bibliography.html#ECMA11a">ECMA11a(p.S9.10)</a>]).
Other conversions, such as <code>ToNumber</code>, are not directly supported but reflected in the typing rules of expressions.</p>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>We express absence of automatic coercion here by means of subtype
relations:</p>
</div>
<div class="openblock">
<div class="content">
<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" display="block"><mtable><mtr><mtd><mfrac><mrow/><mrow><mi>Γ</mi><mo>⊢</mo><mstyle mathvariant="monospace"><mtext>Boolean</mtext></mstyle><mspace width="1.0mm"/><mo>≮</mo><mstyle mathvariant="monospace"><mtext>:</mtext></mstyle><mspace width="1.0mm"/><mstyle mathvariant="monospace"><mtext>boolean</mtext></mstyle></mrow></mfrac><mspace width="3.0mm"/><mfrac><mrow/><mrow><mi>Γ</mi><mo>⊢</mo><mstyle mathvariant="monospace"><mtext>boolean</mtext></mstyle><mspace width="1.0mm"/><mo>≮</mo><mstyle mathvariant="monospace"><mtext>:</mtext></mstyle><mspace width="1.0mm"/><mstyle mathvariant="monospace"><mtext>Boolean</mtext></mstyle></mrow></mfrac></mtd></mtr><mtr><mtd><mfrac><mrow/><mrow><mi>Γ</mi><mo>⊢</mo><mstyle mathvariant="monospace"><mtext>Number</mtext></mstyle><mspace width="1.0mm"/><mo>≮</mo><mstyle mathvariant="monospace"><mtext>:</mtext></mstyle><mspace width="1.0mm"/><mstyle mathvariant="monospace"><mtext>number</mtext></mstyle></mrow></mfrac><mspace width="3.0mm"/><mfrac><mrow/><mrow><mi>Γ</mi><mo>⊢</mo><mstyle mathvariant="monospace"><mtext>number</mtext></mstyle><mspace width="1.0mm"/><mo>≮</mo><mstyle mathvariant="monospace"><mtext>:</mtext></mstyle><mspace width="1.0mm"/><mstyle mathvariant="monospace"><mtext>Number</mtext></mstyle></mrow></mfrac></mtd></mtr><mtr><mtd><mfrac><mrow/><mrow><mi>Γ</mi><mo>⊢</mo><mstyle mathvariant="monospace"><mtext>String</mtext></mstyle><mspace width="1.0mm"/><mo>≮</mo><mstyle mathvariant="monospace"><mtext>:</mtext></mstyle><mspace width="1.0mm"/><mstyle mathvariant="monospace"><mtext>string</mtext></mstyle></mrow></mfrac><mspace width="3.0mm"/><mfrac><mrow/><mrow><mi>Γ</mi><mo>⊢</mo><mstyle mathvariant="monospace"><mtext>string</mtext></mstyle><mspace width="1.0mm"/><mo>≮</mo><mstyle mathvariant="monospace"><mtext>:</mtext></mstyle><mspace width="1.0mm"/><mstyle mathvariant="monospace"><mtext>String</mtext></mstyle></mrow></mfrac></mtd></mtr></mtable></math>
</div>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>and for the N4JS specific types:</p>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mfrac><mrow/><mrow><mi>Γ</mi><mo>⊢</mo><mstyle mathvariant="monospace"><mtext>pathSelector</mtext></mstyle><mo>&lt;</mo><mstyle mathvariant="monospace"><mtext>T</mtext></mstyle><mo>&gt;</mo><mspace width="1.0mm"/><mo>&lt;</mo><mstyle mathvariant="monospace"><mtext>:</mtext></mstyle><mspace width="1.0mm"/><mstyle mathvariant="monospace"><mtext>string</mtext></mstyle></mrow></mfrac></math><br>
<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mfrac><mrow/><mrow><mi>Γ</mi><mo>⊢</mo><mstyle mathvariant="monospace"><mtext>i18nKey</mtext></mstyle><mspace width="1.0mm"/><mo>&lt;</mo><mstyle mathvariant="monospace"><mtext>:</mtext></mstyle><mspace width="1.0mm"/><mstyle mathvariant="monospace"><mtext>string</mtext></mstyle></mrow></mfrac></math></p>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>If a conversion between primitive and object type is desired, we require the user of N4JS to actively convert the values.
The reason for that is the notably different behavior of object- and primitive-variants of a type in expression evaluation:</p>
</div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content">
<pre class="highlight"><code class="language-n4js" data-lang="n4js">var bool: boolean = false;
var Bool: Boolean = new Boolean( false );
console.log( bool ? "true" : "false"); // prints "false"
console.log( Bool ? "true" : "false"); // prints "true"!</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>Conversion between a primitive type to its object-variant is achieved by the <code>new</code> operator.
The <code>valueOf()</code> method converts the object-variant back to a primitive value.</p>
</div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content">
<pre class="highlight"><code class="language-n4js" data-lang="n4js">// objects from literals:
var bo: Boolean = new Boolean( true ); // typeof bo: object
var no: Number = new Number( 42 ); // typeof no: object
var so: String = new String( "foo" ); // typeof so: object
// to primitive
var b: boolean = bo.valueOf(); // typeof b: boolean -- true
var n: number = no.valueOf(); // typeof n: number -- 42
var s: string = so.valueOf(); // typeof s: string -- "foo"
// to object-type
bo = new Boolean( b );
no = new Number( n );
so = new String( s );</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>Conversion of variables of type <code>Object</code> or from one primitive type to another is expressed in terms of typing rules for expressions.
That is, it is not possible to convert any <code>Object</code> to a primitive in general, but it is possible to do so in the context of certain expressions such as additive operator.
The applied conversions are described in <a href="#_auto-conversion-of-class-instances">Auto-Conversion of Class Instances</a></p>
</div>
</div>
<div class="sect3">
<h4 id="_autoboxing-of-primitives"><a class="anchor" href="#_autoboxing-of-primitives"></a><a class="link" href="#_autoboxing-of-primitives">7.1.2. Autoboxing of Primitives</a></h4>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>In [<a href="appendix_c_bibliography.html#ECMA11a">ECMA11a</a>], autoboxing is defined by <code>ToObject</code> [<a href="appendix_c_bibliography.html#ECMA11a">ECMA11a(p.S9.9)</a>].</p>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>Autoboxing is not directly supported in N4JS. Instead, primitive types virtually have the same members as their corresponding object types.
It is then possible to use the Autoboxing feature when calling a member.
In general, Autoboxing is only supported for accessing built-in read-only (immutable) properties.
For example, <code>"some string value".split(" ");</code> is supported but <code>"some string value".foo=1;</code> will be rejected as String does not allow properties to be added (cf. <code>String</code> vs. <code>String+</code>, see <a href="#_dynamic">[_dynamic]</a>).</p>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>Autoboxing often leads to problems, in particular in combination with dynamic types – this is why it is not directly supported in N4JS.</p>
</div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content">
<pre class="highlight"><code class="language-n4js" data-lang="n4js">var s: String+ = "Hello"; <i class="conum" data-value="1"></i><b>(1)</b>
s.prop = 1;
console.log(s.prop); <i class="conum" data-value="2"></i><b>(2)</b></code></pre>
</div>
</div>
<div class="colist arabic">
<table>
<tr>
<td><i class="conum" data-value="1"></i><b>1</b></td>
<td>will produce an error to prevent the following scenario:</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td><i class="conum" data-value="2"></i><b>2</b></td>
<td>prints "undefined"</td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
</div>
<div class="sect3">
<h4 id="_autoboxing-of-function-expressions-and-declarations"><a class="anchor" href="#_autoboxing-of-function-expressions-and-declarations"></a><a class="link" href="#_autoboxing-of-function-expressions-and-declarations">7.1.3. Autoboxing of Function Expressions and Declarations</a></h4>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>Function expressions and declarations always define an object of type <code>Function</code>, thus coercing or Autoboxing is not required in case of functions:</p>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>It is always possible to use a function expression where a <code>Function</code> is required, and to use an object of type <code>Function</code> where a function expression is expected.
This is only possible if the function signatures are subtype-compatible, see <a href="functions.html#_function-type">Function Type</a> for details.</p>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>Still, it is always possible to call members of <code>Function</code>, e.g., <code>function(){}.length()</code>.</p>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="sect2 language-n4js">
<h3 id="_auto-conversion-of-objects"><a class="anchor" href="#_auto-conversion-of-objects"></a><a class="link" href="#_auto-conversion-of-objects">7.2. Auto-Conversion of Objects</a></h3>
<div class="sect3">
<h4 id="_auto-conversion-of-class-instances"><a class="anchor" href="#_auto-conversion-of-class-instances"></a><a class="link" href="#_auto-conversion-of-class-instances">7.2.1. Auto-Conversion of Class Instances</a></h4>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>All classes defined in N4JS modules implicitly subclass <code>N4Object</code>, which is a plain JavaScript Object type.
The same auto-conversion rules defined for JavaScript <code>Object</code> therefore apply to <code>N4Object</code> instances as well.</p>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>The basic conversion uses the abstract JavaScript function <code>ToPrimitive</code> [<a href="appendix_c_bibliography.html#ECMA11a">ECMA11a(p.S9.1)</a>], which relays on the specification method <code>Object</code> [<a href="appendix_c_bibliography.html#ECMA11a">ECMA11a(p.S8.12.8)</a>].
<code>DefaultValue</code> calls <code>valueOf</code> or <code>toString</code> methods if they are defined by the class (in the <code>methods</code>-builder).</p>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>Note that according to the [<a href="appendix_c_bibliography.html#ECMA11a">ECMA11a</a>], in most cases, objects are first converted into primitives.
That is, in most cases, no extra hint is passed to <code>DefaultValue</code>. Thus <code>valueOf</code> usually takes precedence over toString as demonstrated in the following example:</p>
</div>
<div class="exampleblock">
<div class="title">Example 71. Auto-Conversion</div>
<div class="content">
<div class="paragraph">
<p>Assume some classes and corresponding instances defined as follows:</p>
</div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content">
<pre class="highlight"><code class="language-n4js" data-lang="n4js">class A {}
class B{
@Override public toString(): string { return "MyB"}
}
class C{
@Override public valueOf(): any { return 10}
}
class D{
@Override public toString(): string { return "MyD"}
@Override public valueOf(): any { return 20}
}
var a = new A(), b = new B(), c = new C(), d = new D();</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>Instances of these classes will be converted as demonstrated as follows:</p>
</div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content">
<pre class="highlight"><code class="language-n4js" data-lang="n4js">console.log(a+""); // [object Object]
console.log(a+1); // [object Object]1
console.log(""+b+""); // MyB
console.log(1+b+1); // 1MyB1
console.log(c+""); // 10
console.log(c+1); // 11
console.log(d+""); // 20
console.log(d+1); // 21</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="sect4">
<h5 id="_auto-conversion-of-interface-instances"><a class="anchor" href="#_auto-conversion-of-interface-instances"></a><a class="link" href="#_auto-conversion-of-interface-instances">7.2.1.1. Auto-Conversion of Interface Instances</a></h5>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>Instances of interfaces actually are instances of classes at runtime.
The auto-conversion rules described in <a href="#_auto-conversion-of-class-instances">Auto-Conversion of Class Instances</a> are applied to instances declared as instances of interfaces as well.</p>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="sect3">
<h4 id="_auto-conversion-of-enum-literals"><a class="anchor" href="#_auto-conversion-of-enum-literals"></a><a class="link" href="#_auto-conversion-of-enum-literals">7.2.2. Auto-Conversion of Enum Literals</a></h4>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>Enumeration values are objects and thus follow the behavior for ECMAScript <code>Object</code> and <code>Function</code>.
They have a custom <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mi>t</mi><mi>o</mi><mi>S</mi><mi>t</mi><mi>r</mi><mi>i</mi><mi>n</mi><mi>g</mi></math> method which returns the name of the enumeration value.</p>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="sect2 language-n4js">
<h3 id="_type-cast-and-type-check"><a class="anchor" href="#_type-cast-and-type-check"></a><a class="link" href="#_type-cast-and-type-check">7.3. Type Cast and Type Check</a></h3>
<div class="sect3">
<h4 id="_type-cast"><a class="anchor" href="#_type-cast"></a><a class="link" href="#_type-cast">7.3.1. Type Cast</a></h4>
<div class="literalblock">
<div class="content">
<pre>(IDEBUG-56): Casting to TypeVars</pre>
</div>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>Type casts are expressed with the cast expression (<code>as</code>), see <a href="expressions.html#_cast-as-expression">Cast (As) Expression</a> for details.</p>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>We first define helper rules for the type cast constraints as follows:</p>
</div>
<div class="openblock">
<div class="content">
<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" display="block"><mtable><mtr><mtd><mfrac><mrow><mi>μ</mi><mfenced close=")" open="("><mi>T</mi></mfenced><mo>∈</mo><mfenced close="}" open="{"><mstyle mathvariant="monospace"><mtext>TEnum</mtext></mstyle><mstyle mathvariant="monospace"><mtext>Class</mtext></mstyle><mstyle mathvariant="monospace"><mtext>Primitive</mtext></mstyle><mstyle mathvariant="monospace"><mtext>ObjectType</mtext></mstyle></mfenced></mrow><mrow><mi>i</mi><mi>s</mi><mi>C</mi><mi>P</mi><mi>O</mi><mi>E</mi><mfenced close=")" open="("><mi>T</mi></mfenced></mrow></mfrac></mtd></mtr><mtr><mtd><mfrac><mrow><mi>μ</mi><mi>T</mi><mo>∈</mo><mfenced close="}" open="{"><mstyle mathvariant="monospace"><mtext>ClassifierType</mtext></mstyle><mstyle mathvariant="monospace"><mtext>TypeType</mtext></mstyle></mfenced><mo>∧</mo><mi>μ</mi><mfenced close=")" open="("><mrow><mi>T</mi><mo>.</mo><mi>t</mi><mi>y</mi><mi>p</mi><mi>e</mi><mi>R</mi><mi>e</mi><mi>f</mi></mrow></mfenced><mo>≠</mo><mstyle mathvariant="monospace"><mtext>TypeVariable</mtext></mstyle></mrow><mrow><mi>i</mi><mi>s</mi><mi>C</mi><mi>P</mi><mi>O</mi><mi>E</mi><mfenced close=")" open="("><mi>T</mi></mfenced></mrow></mfrac></mtd></mtr><mtr><mtd><mfrac><mrow><mi>μ</mi><mfenced close=")" open="("><mi>T</mi></mfenced><mo>∈</mo><mfenced close="}" open="{"><mstyle mathvariant="monospace"><mtext>Interface</mtext></mstyle></mfenced></mrow><mrow><mi>i</mi><mi>s</mi><mi>I</mi><mi>n</mi><mi>t</mi><mi>e</mi><mi>r</mi><mi>f</mi><mi>a</mi><mi>c</mi><mi>e</mi><mfenced close=")" open="("><mi>T</mi></mfenced></mrow></mfrac></mtd></mtr><mtr><mtd><mfrac><mrow><mi>μ</mi><mfenced close=")" open="("><mi>T</mi></mfenced><mo>=</mo><mstyle mathvariant="monospace"><mtext>TypeVariable</mtext></mstyle><mo>∧</mo><mi>T</mi><mo>.</mo><mi>u</mi><mi>p</mi><mi>p</mi><mi>e</mi><mi>r</mi><mi>B</mi><mi>o</mi><mi>u</mi><mi>n</mi><mi>d</mi><mi>s</mi><mo>≠</mo><mi>∅</mi></mrow><mrow><mi>i</mi><mi>s</mi><mi>B</mi><mi>o</mi><mi>u</mi><mi>n</mi><mi>d</mi><mi>T</mi><mi>y</mi><mi>p</mi><mi>e</mi><mi>V</mi><mi>a</mi><mi>r</mi><mfenced close=")" open="("><mi>T</mi></mfenced></mrow></mfrac></mtd></mtr><mtr><mtd><mfrac><mrow><mi>μ</mi><mfenced close=")" open="("><mi>T</mi></mfenced><mo>∈</mo><mfenced close="}" open="{"><mrow><mi> </mi><mstyle mathvariant="monospace"><mtext>TEnum</mtext></mstyle></mrow><mstyle mathvariant="monospace"><mtext>Primitive</mtext></mstyle></mfenced><mo>∨</mo><mfenced close="}" open="("><mrow><mi>μ</mi><mfenced close=")" open="("><mi>T</mi></mfenced><mo>=</mo><mstyle mathvariant="monospace"><mtext>Class</mtext></mstyle><mo>∧</mo><mi>T</mi><mo>.</mo><mi>e</mi><mi>x</mi><mi>t</mi><mi>e</mi><mi>n</mi><mi>s</mi><mi>i</mi><mi>b</mi><mi>i</mi><mi>l</mi><mi>i</mi><mi>t</mi><mi>y</mi><mo>=</mo><mstyle mathvariant="monospace"><mtext>final</mtext></mstyle></mrow></mfenced><mo>)</mo></mrow><mrow><mi>i</mi><mi>s</mi><mi>F</mi><mi>i</mi><mi>n</mi><mi>a</mi><mi>l</mi><mi>B</mi><mi>y</mi><mi>T</mi><mi>y</mi><mi>p</mi><mi>e</mi><mfenced close=")" open="("><mi>T</mi></mfenced></mrow></mfrac></mtd></mtr></mtable></math>
</div>
</div>
<div class="openblock requirement">
<div class="content">
<div class="paragraph">
<p><a id="Req-IDE-89"></a><strong>Req. IDE-89:</strong> <a href="#Req-IDE-89">Cast Validation At Compile Time</a> (ver. 1)</p>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>Given a type cast expression <code>e</code> in which
<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mi>Γ</mi><mo>⊢</mo><mi>e</mi><mo>.</mo><mi>e</mi><mi>x</mi><mi>p</mi><mi>r</mi><mi>:</mi><mi>S</mi></math> and and target type <code>T</code>, the
following constraints must hold:</p>
</div>
<div class="olist arabic">
<ol class="arabic">
<li>
<p><code>T</code> must be a classifier, enum, primitive, function type expression, classifier type, type variable, union or intersection type:</p>
<div class="paragraph">
<p><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mi>μ</mi><mfenced close=")" open="("><mi>T</mi></mfenced><mo>∈</mo><mspace width="3.0mm"/><mrow><mo>{</mo><mstyle mathvariant="monospace"><mtext>any</mtext></mstyle><mo>,</mo><mstyle mathvariant="monospace"><mtext>Class</mtext></mstyle><mo>,</mo><mstyle mathvariant="monospace"><mtext>Interface</mtext></mstyle><mo>,</mo><mstyle mathvariant="monospace"><mtext>Enum</mtext></mstyle><mo>,</mo><mstyle mathvariant="monospace"><mtext>Primitive</mtext></mstyle><mo>,</mo><mstyle mathvariant="monospace"><mtext>ObjectType</mtext></mstyle><mo>,</mo></mrow></math><br>
<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mrow><mspace width="3.0mm"/><mstyle mathvariant="monospace"><mtext>FunctionTypeExpression</mtext></mstyle><mo>,</mo><mstyle mathvariant="monospace"><mtext>ClassifierType</mtext></mstyle><mo>,</mo><mstyle mathvariant="monospace"><mtext>TypeVariable</mtext></mstyle><mo>,</mo><mstyle mathvariant="monospace"><mtext>Union</mtext></mstyle><mo>,</mo><mstyle mathvariant="monospace"><mtext>Intersection</mtext></mstyle><mo>}</mo></mrow></math></p>
</div>
</li>
<li>
<p>if <code>S</code> is a subtype of <code>T</code>, the cast is unnecessary and a warning will be generated.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>if <code>S</code> and <code>T</code> are classes, enums or primitive types, then <code>T</code> must be a subtype of <code>S</code>.
This is also true if <code>T</code> is an interface and the type of <code>S</code> cannot have subtypes, or vice versa.</p>
<div class="paragraph">
<p><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mrow><mo>(</mo><mi>i</mi><mi>s</mi><mi>C</mi><mi>P</mi><mi>O</mi><mi>E</mi><mfenced close=")" open="("><mi>T</mi></mfenced></mrow></math><br>
<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mspace width="2.0em"/><mo>∧</mo><mrow><mo>(</mo><mi>i</mi><mi>s</mi><mi>C</mi><mi>P</mi><mi>O</mi><mi>E</mi><mfenced close=")" open="("><mi>S</mi></mfenced></mrow></math><br>
<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mrow><mspace width="4.0em"/><mo>∨</mo><mfenced close=")" open="("><mrow><mi>μ</mi><mfenced close=")" open="("><mi>S</mi></mfenced><mo>=</mo><mstyle mathvariant="monospace"><mtext>Intersection</mtext></mstyle><mo>∧</mo><mo>∃</mo><msup><mi>S</mi><mi>'</mi></msup><mo>∈</mo><mi>S</mi><mi>:</mi><mi>i</mi><mi>s</mi><mi>C</mi><mi>P</mi><mi>O</mi><mi>E</mi><mfenced close=")" open="("><msup><mi>S</mi><mi>'</mi></msup></mfenced></mrow></mfenced><mo>)</mo></mrow></math><br>
<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mo>∨</mo><mfenced close=")" open="("><mrow><mi>i</mi><mi>s</mi><mi>I</mi><mi>n</mi><mi>t</mi><mi>e</mi><mi>r</mi><mi>f</mi><mi>a</mi><mi>c</mi><mi>e</mi><mfenced close=")" open="("><mi>T</mi></mfenced><mo>∧</mo><mi>i</mi><mi>s</mi><mi>F</mi><mi>i</mi><mi>n</mi><mi>a</mi><mi>l</mi><mi>B</mi><mi>y</mi><mi>T</mi><mi>y</mi><mi>p</mi><mi>e</mi><mfenced close=")" open="("><mi>S</mi></mfenced></mrow></mfenced></math><br>
<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mrow><mo>∨</mo><mfenced close=")" open="("><mrow><mi>i</mi><mi>s</mi><mi>F</mi><mi>i</mi><mi>n</mi><mi>a</mi><mi>l</mi><mi>B</mi><mi>y</mi><mi>T</mi><mi>y</mi><mi>p</mi><mi>e</mi><mfenced close=")" open="("><mi>T</mi></mfenced><mo>∧</mo><mi>i</mi><mi>s</mi><mi>I</mi><mi>n</mi><mi>t</mi><mi>e</mi><mi>r</mi><mi>f</mi><mi>a</mi><mi>c</mi><mi>e</mi><mfenced close=")" open="("><mi>S</mi></mfenced></mrow></mfenced><mo>)</mo></mrow><mo>→</mo><mi>Γ</mi><mo>⊢</mo><mi>T</mi><mo>&lt;</mo><mi>:</mi><mi>S</mi></math></p>
</div>
</li>
<li>
<p>if <code>S</code> is a class, enum or primitive type and <code>T</code> is a type-variable, then for each given boundary <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><msubsup><mi>T</mi><mi>i</mi><mrow><mi>u</mi><mi>p</mi></mrow></msubsup></math> of <code>T</code>
of type class, enum or primitive <code>S</code> must be a member of the type hierarchy: <sup class="footnote">[<a id="_footnoteref_47" class="footnote" href="appendix_c_bibliography.html#_footnote_47" title="View footnote.">47</a>]</sup></p>
<div class="paragraph">
<p><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mfenced close=")" open="("><mrow><mi>i</mi><mi>s</mi><mi>B</mi><mi>o</mi><mi>u</mi><mi>n</mi><mi>d</mi><mi>T</mi><mi>y</mi><mi>p</mi><mi>e</mi><mi>V</mi><mi>a</mi><mi>r</mi><mfenced close=")" open="("><mi>T</mi></mfenced><mo>∧</mo><mi>i</mi><mi>s</mi><mi>C</mi><mi>P</mi><mi>O</mi><mi>E</mi><mfenced close=")" open="("><mi>S</mi></mfenced></mrow></mfenced></math><br>
<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mo>→</mo><msub><mo>∀</mo><mrow><msubsup><mi>T</mi><mi>i</mi><mrow><mi>u</mi><mi>p</mi></mrow></msubsup><mo>∈</mo><mi>T</mi><mo>.</mo><mi>u</mi><mi>p</mi><mi>p</mi><mi>e</mi><mi>r</mi><mi>B</mi><mi>o</mi><mi>u</mi><mi>n</mi><mi>d</mi><mi>s</mi></mrow></msub><mrow><mo>(</mo><mi>i</mi><mi>s</mi><mi>C</mi><mi>P</mi><mi>O</mi><mi>E</mi><mfenced close=")" open="("><msubsup><mi>T</mi><mi>i</mi><mrow><mi>u</mi><mi>p</mi></mrow></msubsup></mfenced><mo>→</mo><mi>Γ</mi><mo>⊢</mo><mrow><mo>(</mo><mrow><mrow><msubsup><mi>T</mi><mi>i</mi><mrow><mi>u</mi><mi>p</mi></mrow></msubsup><mo>&lt;</mo><mi>:</mi><mi>S</mi><mo>∨</mo><msubsup><mi>T</mi><mi>i</mi><mrow><mi>u</mi><mi>p</mi></mrow></msubsup><mi>:</mi><mo>&gt;</mo><mi>S</mi><mo>)</mo></mrow><mo>)</mo></mrow></mrow></mrow></math></p>
</div>
</li>
<li>
<p>if <code>S</code> is a union or intersection type, then the type cast is valid if it is valid for at least one element of <code>S</code>.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>if <code>S</code> and <code>T</code> are generics, and if <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><msup><mi>S</mi><mn>0</mn></msup><mo>=</mo><msup><mi>T</mi><mn>0</mn></msup></math>,
a cast is possible if type arguments are sub- or supertypes of each other: <sup class="footnote">[<a id="_footnoteref_48" class="footnote" href="appendix_c_bibliography.html#_footnote_48" title="View footnote.">48</a>]</sup></p>
<div class="paragraph">
<p><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mi>μ</mi><mfenced close=")" open="("><mi>S</mi></mfenced><mo>=</mo><mstyle mathvariant="monospace"><mtext>Classifier</mtext></mstyle><mo>∧</mo><mi>μ</mi><mfenced close=")" open="("><mi>T</mi></mfenced><mo>=</mo><mstyle mathvariant="monospace"><mtext>Classifier</mtext></mstyle><mo>∧</mo><msup><mi>S</mi><mn>0</mn></msup><mo>=</mo><msup><mi>T</mi><mn>0</mn></msup><mo>→</mo></math><br>
<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mspace width="2.0em"/><mrow><mo>(</mo><mrow><mo>∀</mo><mi> </mi><mi>S</mi><mo>.</mo><mi>t</mi><mi>y</mi><mi>p</mi><mi>e</mi><mi>A</mi><mi>r</mi><msub><mi>g</mi><mi>i</mi></msub><mo>&lt;</mo><mi>:</mi><mi>T</mi><mo>.</mo><mi>t</mi><mi>y</mi><mi>p</mi><mi>e</mi><mi>A</mi><mi>r</mi><msub><mi>g</mi><mi>i</mi></msub><mo>)</mo></mrow><mo>∨</mo><mrow><mo>(</mo><mrow><mo>∀</mo><mi> </mi><mi>T</mi><mo>.</mo><mi>t</mi><mi>y</mi><mi>p</mi><mi>e</mi><mi>A</mi><mi>r</mi><msub><mi>g</mi><mi>i</mi></msub><mo>&lt;</mo><mi>:</mi><mi>S</mi><mo>.</mo><mi>t</mi><mi>y</mi><mi>p</mi><mi>e</mi><mi>A</mi><mi>r</mi><msub><mi>g</mi><mi>i</mi></msub><mo>)</mo></mrow></mrow></mrow></math></p>
</div>
</li>
<li>
<p>If <code>T</code> is a union type, then the type cast is valid if it is valid for at least one element of <code>T</code>.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>If <code>T</code> is an intersection type, then the type cast is valid if it is valid for all elements of <code>T</code>.</p>
</li>
</ol>
</div>
<div class="admonitionblock note">
<table>
<tr>
<td class="icon">
<i class="fa icon-note" title=""></i>
</td>
<td class="content">
<code>any</code> is a supertype of all other types, thus it is always possible to cast a variable of type <code>any</code> to other (non-composed) types.
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="sect3">
<h4 id="_type-check"><a class="anchor" href="#_type-check"></a><a class="link" href="#_type-check">7.3.2. Type Check</a></h4>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>There are basically two ways of testing the type of a variable: <code>typeof</code> and <code>instanceof</code>.
N4JS supports type comparison via the ECMAScript <code>instanceof</code> operator.
The operator <code>instanceof</code> retains its standard ECMAScript behavior (e.g. checking whether a value is an instance of a constructor function), but has additional functionality when used with N4JS types.</p>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>When used with an N4JS class, <code>instanceof</code> also supports checking against an interface. For N4JS enumeration values, it can be used to check whether the value is part of a specific enumeration.</p>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p><code>typeof</code> only returns a string with the name of the ECMAScript type, which is <code>Object</code> for all class instances.</p>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>N4JS specific <code>string</code> types, that is <code>pathSelector</code> and <code>i18nkey</code> cannot be tested during runtime.
These types, therefore, must not be used in <code>instanceof</code> expressions.
The same is true for string-based enums and arrays which cannot be tested during runtime, thus string-based enum and array types are not permitted on the right-hand side of <code>instancesof</code> constructs.
For all types for which the evaluation result of <code>instanceof</code> could be computed at compile time, the check is unnecessary and thus it is refused by the compiler.
Using structural types on the right-hand side of <code>instancesof</code> constructs is also not permitted.</p>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>In order to avoid errors at runtime, the <code>instanceof</code> operator defines appropriate constraints, see <a href="expressions.html#_relational-expression">Relational Expression</a> for details.</p>
</div>
<div class="exampleblock">
<div class="title">Example 72. Type Check Example</div>
<div class="content">
<div class="paragraph">
<p>Given the following classes and variable:</p>
</div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content">
<pre class="highlight"><code class="language-n4js" data-lang="n4js">interface I{}
class S{}
class Sub extends S implements I{}
var x = new Sub();</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p><code>typeof x</code> will simply return <code>object</code>. The following table shows the difference between plain JavaScript <code>instanceof</code> and N4JS’s <code>instanceof</code>:</p>
</div>
<table class="tableblock frame-all grid-all spread">
<colgroup>
<col style="width: 33.3333%;">
<col style="width: 33.3333%;">
<col style="width: 33.3334%;">
</colgroup>
<thead>
<tr>
<th class="tableblock halign-left valign-top">Check</th>
<th class="tableblock halign-center valign-top">JavaScript</th>
<th class="tableblock halign-center valign-top">N4JS</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td class="tableblock halign-left valign-top"><p class="tableblock"><code>x instanceof Sub</code></p></td>
<td class="tableblock halign-center valign-top"><p class="tableblock"><code>true</code></p></td>
<td class="tableblock halign-center valign-top"><p class="tableblock"><code>true</code></p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tableblock halign-left valign-top"><p class="tableblock"><code>x instanceof S</code></p></td>
<td class="tableblock halign-center valign-top"><p class="tableblock"><code>true</code></p></td>
<td class="tableblock halign-center valign-top"><p class="tableblock"><code>true</code></p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tableblock halign-left valign-top"><p class="tableblock"><code>x instanceof I</code></p></td>
<td class="tableblock halign-center valign-top"><p class="tableblock"><code>false</code></p></td>
<td class="tableblock halign-center valign-top"><p class="tableblock"><code>true</code></p></td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
</div>
</div>
<div class="sect2 language-n4js">
<h3 id="_reflection-meta-information"><a class="anchor" href="#_reflection-meta-information"></a><a class="link" href="#_reflection-meta-information">7.4. Reflection meta-information</a></h3>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>All N4JS classes, interfaces and enumerations provide meta-information
that is used by the runtime and standard library.
All classifiers (including enums) provide meta-information by means of a static getter <code>n4type</code>.
Since it is static getter, it is actually an instance getter of the
constructor (or classifier) of a type, which is the only way to retrieve
that information in case of interfaces. For enums, this can be retrieved
from instances as well.</p>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>This getter is of type <code>N4Class</code> which is a built-in type just like <code>N4Object</code>. It contains the following members:</p>
</div>
<div class="dlist">
<dl>
<dt class="hdlist1"><code>fqn</code> </dt>
<dd>
<p>The <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mi>F</mi><mi>Q</mi><mi>N</mi></math> of the type.</p>
</dd>
<dt class="hdlist1"><code>n4superType</code> </dt>
<dd>
<p>The <code>N4Class</code> of the supertype, may be null if supertype is a not an <code>N4Class</code>.</p>
</dd>
<dt class="hdlist1"><code>allImplementedInterfaces</code> </dt>
<dd>
<p>List of The <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mi>F</mi><mi>Q</mi><mi>N</mi></math> of implemented interfaces (transitively
but without interfaces implemented by supertype)</p>
</dd>
<dt class="hdlist1"><code>get isClass</code> </dt>
<dd>
<p>True if the type is an N4Class.</p>
</dd>
<dt class="hdlist1"><code>get isInterface</code> </dt>
<dd>
<p>True if the type is an N4Interface.</p>
</dd>
</dl>
</div>
<div class="sect3">
<h4 id="_reflection-for-classes"><a class="anchor" href="#_reflection-for-classes"></a><a class="link" href="#_reflection-for-classes">7.4.1. Reflection for Classes</a></h4>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>The meta-information for classes is available by means of <code>N4Object</code>’s static
getter <code>n4type</code>. Since it is static getter, it is actually an instance getter of the constructor of a type.</p>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>In addition, the static method <code>of</code> in <code>N4Type</code> is available to retrieve the meta-information for a given instance or
constructor. This also allows to retrieve meta-information directly for an instance of some class <code>C</code> without having
the constructor of <code>C</code> available, for example because the constructor is not accessible.</p>
</div>
<div class="exampleblock">
<div class="title">Example 73. Reflection with <code>N4class</code></div>
<div class="content">
<div class="paragraph">
<p>This example demonstrates how these reflective features are accessed:</p>
</div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content">
<pre class="highlight"><code class="language-n4js" data-lang="n4js">class A {}
class B extends A {}
var b = new B();
console.log(B.n4type.fqn);
console.log(b.constructor.n4type.fqn);
console.log(b.constructor.n4type.n4superType.fqn);
console.log(N4Type.of(b));
console.log(N4Type.of(B.n4type).fqn);</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>Assuming this code is defined in file <code>A</code>, this will output</p>
</div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content">
<pre class="highlight"><code class="language-n4js" data-lang="n4js">A.B
A.B
A.A
A.B
N4BuiltInClasses.N4Class</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>The built-in types <code>N4Object</code> and <code>N4Class</code> are also accessible.
They are not defined in a module, thus their <a href="appendix_a_acronyms.html#_acronyms">FQN</a> returns only their simple name.</p>
</div>
<div class="exampleblock">
<div class="title">Example 74. Reflection with Built-In Types</div>
<div class="content">
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content">
<pre class="highlight"><code class="language-n4js" data-lang="n4js">console.log('N4Object.n4class.fqn: ' + N4Object.n4class.fqn)
console.log('N4Class.n4class.fqn: ' + N4Class.n4class.fqn)
class A {}
console.log('A.n4class.fqn: ' + A.n4class.fqn)
console.log('A.n4class.n4superType.fqn: ' + A.n4class.n4superType.fqn)</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>Assuming this code is defined in file <code>A</code>, this will output</p>
</div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content">
<pre class="highlight"><code class="language-n4js" data-lang="n4js">N4Object.n4class.fqn: N4Object
N4Class.n4class.fqn: N4Class
A.n4class.fqn: A.A
A.n4class.n4superType.fqn: N4Object</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>Note that classes extending <code>Object</code> do not provide the static <code>n4class</code> getter, hat is</p>
</div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content">
<pre class="highlight"><code class="language-n4js" data-lang="n4js">class B extends Object {}
console.log('B.n4class.fqn: ' + B.n4class.fqn)</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>would issue an error as cannot be resolved.</p>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="exampleblock">
<div class="title">Example 75. N4Class.of</div>
<div class="content">
<div class="paragraph">
<p>The type has a method to retrieve the meta-information from instances (i.e. or enumeration literals using )
without using the constructor.</p>
</div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content">
<pre class="highlight"><code class="language-n4js" data-lang="n4js">class C { }
interface I {} class IImpl implements I {}
enum E { L }
var c: C = new C();
var i: I = new IImpl();
var e: E = E.L;
console.log(C.n4type.fqn);
console.log(N4Class.of(c).fqn);
console.log(I.n4type.fqn);
console.log(N4Class.of(i).fqn);
console.log(E.n4type.fqn);
console.log(N4EnumType.of(e).fqn);</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="sect3">
<h4 id="_reflection-for-interfaces"><a class="anchor" href="#_reflection-for-interfaces"></a><a class="link" href="#_reflection-for-interfaces">7.4.2. Reflection for Interfaces</a></h4>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>The meta-information of an interface <code>X</code> is available via getter <code>n4class</code> defined in the <code>type{X}</code>.
This field is of type <code>N4Class</code> as well.
Since an interface cannot have a super classs, the property <code>n4superTypes</code> will always be empty.
Calling <code>isInterface</code> respectively on the returned <code>N4Class</code> instance will return true.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div class="sect3">
<h4 id="_reflection-for-enumerations"><a class="anchor" href="#_reflection-for-enumerations"></a><a class="link" href="#_reflection-for-enumerations">7.4.3. Reflection for Enumerations</a></h4>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content">
<pre class="highlight"><code class="language-n4js" data-lang="n4js">var n: number; var b: boolean; var s: string;</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>The meta-information for enumerations is available by means of the getter <code>n4class</code>, either statically by using the enumeration type or (in terms of an instance getter) via a literal.
Calling <code>isEnum</code> on the returned <code>N4Class</code> instance will return true.</p>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="sect2 language-n4js">
<h3 id="_conversion-of-primitive-types"><a class="anchor" href="#_conversion-of-primitive-types"></a><a class="link" href="#_conversion-of-primitive-types">7.5. Conversion of primitive types</a></h3>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>Conversion between primitives is given as follows:</p>
</div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content">
<pre class="highlight"><code class="language-n4js" data-lang="n4js">var n: number; var b: boolean; var s: string;</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
<table class="tableblock frame-all grid-all spread">
<colgroup>
<col style="width: 11.1111%;">
<col style="width: 11.1111%;">
<col style="width: 44.4444%;">
<col style="width: 33.3334%;">
</colgroup>
<thead>
<tr>
<th class="tableblock halign-center valign-middle">From</th>
<th class="tableblock halign-center valign-middle">To</th>
<th class="tableblock halign-left valign-middle">Conversion</th>
<th class="tableblock halign-center valign-top">Example</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td class="tableblock halign-center valign-middle"><p class="tableblock"><code>string</code></p></td>
<td class="tableblock halign-center valign-middle"><p class="tableblock"><code>number</code></p></td>
<td class="tableblock halign-left valign-middle"><p class="tableblock"><code>Number&#8230;&#8203;</code></p></td>
<td class="tableblock halign-left valign-top"><div><div class="listingblock">
<div class="content">
<pre class="highlight"><code class="language-n4js" data-lang="n4js">n = Number("42");//42</code></pre>
</div>
</div></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tableblock halign-center valign-middle"><p class="tableblock"><code>string</code></p></td>
<td class="tableblock halign-center valign-middle"><p class="tableblock"><code>boolean</code></p></td>
<td class="tableblock halign-left valign-middle"><p class="tableblock"><code>N4Primitives.parseBoolean(&#8230;&#8203;)</code></p></td>
<td class="tableblock halign-left valign-top"><div><div class="listingblock">
<div class="content">
<pre class="highlight"><code class="language-n4js" data-lang="n4js"> b=N4Primitives.parseBoolean("false");</code></pre>
</div>
</div></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tableblock halign-center valign-middle"><p class="tableblock"><code>number</code></p></td>
<td class="tableblock halign-center valign-middle"><p class="tableblock"><code>boolean</code></p></td>
<td class="tableblock halign-left valign-middle"><p class="tableblock"><code>Boolean(&#8230;&#8203;)</code></p></td>
<td class="tableblock halign-left valign-top"><div><div class="listingblock">
<div class="content">
<pre class="highlight"><code class="language-n4js" data-lang="n4js">b=Boolean(17.5); //true</code></pre>
</div>
</div></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tableblock halign-center valign-middle"><p class="tableblock"><code>number</code></p></td>
<td class="tableblock halign-center valign-middle"><p class="tableblock"><code>string</code></p></td>
<td class="tableblock halign-left valign-middle"><p class="tableblock"><code>Number.toString()</code></p></td>
<td class="tableblock halign-left valign-top"><div><div class="listingblock">
<div class="content">
<pre class="highlight"><code class="language-n4js" data-lang="n4js">s=42.toString(); //"42"</code></pre>
</div>
</div></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tableblock halign-center valign-middle"><p class="tableblock"><code>boolean</code></p></td>
<td class="tableblock halign-center valign-middle"><p class="tableblock"><code>number</code></p></td>
<td class="tableblock halign-left valign-middle"><p class="tableblock"><code>N4Primitives.toNumber(&#8230;&#8203;)</code></p></td>
<td class="tableblock halign-left valign-top"><div><div class="listingblock">
<div class="content">
<pre class="highlight"><code class="language-n4js" data-lang="n4js">n=N4Primitives.toNumber(true);</code></pre>
</div>
</div></div></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tableblock halign-center valign-middle"><p class="tableblock"><code>boolean</code></p></td>
<td class="tableblock halign-center valign-middle"><p class="tableblock"><code>string</code></p></td>
<td class="tableblock halign-left valign-middle"><p class="tableblock"><code>Boolean.toString()</code></p></td>
<td class="tableblock halign-left valign-top"><div><div class="listingblock">
<div class="content">
<pre class="highlight"><code class="language-n4js" data-lang="n4js"> s=true.toString();//"true" }</code></pre>
</div>
</div></div></td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>Remarks:</p>
</div>
<div class="olist arabic">
<ol class="arabic">
<li>
<p>ECMAScript doesn’t define explicit conversion from string content.
Implicit handling states all strings with <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mo>&gt;</mo><mn>0</mn><mo>=</mo><mo>=</mo><mi>t</mi><mi>r</mi><mi>u</mi><mi>e</mi></math>. <code>N4Primitives.parseBoolean(x)</code> yields true for <code>x.trim().toLowerCase().equals("true")</code></p>
</li>
<li>
<p>The call to <code>Boolean(..)</code> for the arguments <code>0</code>, <code>-0</code>, <code>null</code>, <code>false</code>, <code>NaN</code>, <code>undefined</code> and <code>""</code> evaluate to <code>false</code>.
All other values evaluate to <code>true</code>.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><code>Number</code> has several methods for converting a value to string [<a href="appendix_c_bibliography.html#ECMA11a">ECMA11a(p.S15.7.4)</a>]: <code>toExponential()</code>, to <code>Fixed()</code>, <code>toPrecision()</code>.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>ECMAScript doesn’t define explicit conversion from boolean to number.
Implicit handling states true <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mo>→</mo></math> 1 and false <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mo>→</mo></math> 0, which <code>N4Primitives.toNumber()</code> yields.</p>
</li>
</ol>
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