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<h1>N4JS Language Specification</h1>
<div class="details">
<span id="author" class="author">2019-08-08 13:15:33 CEST</span><br>
<span id="revnumber">version 0.9</span>
</div>
<div id="toc" class="toc2">
<div id="toctitle">Table of Contents</div>
<ul class="sectlevel1">
<li><a href="introduction.html#_introduction">1. Introduction</a>
<ul class="sectlevel2">
<li><a href="introduction.html#_notation">1.1. Notation</a>
<ul class="sectlevel3">
<li><a href="introduction.html#_grammar-notation">1.1.1. Grammar Notation</a></li>
<li><a href="introduction.html#_type-judgments-and-rules-and-constraints-notation">1.1.2. Type Judgments and Rules and Constraints Notation</a>
<ul class="sectlevel4">
<li><a href="introduction.html#_typing-rules-and-judgments">1.1.2.1. Typing Rules and Judgments</a></li>
<li><a href="introduction.html#_types-of-an-element">1.1.2.2. Types of an Element</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="introduction.html#_auxiliary-functions">1.2. Auxiliary Functions</a>
<ul class="sectlevel3">
<li><a href="introduction.html#_binding">1.2.1. Binding</a></li>
<li><a href="introduction.html#_merging-types">1.2.2. Merging Types</a>
<ul class="sectlevel4">
<li><a href="introduction.html#_logic-formulas">1.2.2.1. Logic Formulas</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="introduction.html#_symbols-and-font-convention">1.2.3. Symbols and Font Convention</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="grammar.html#_grammar">2. Grammar</a>
<ul class="sectlevel2">
<li><a href="grammar.html#_lexical-conventions">2.1. Lexical Conventions</a>
<ul class="sectlevel3">
<li><a href="grammar.html#_identifier-names-and-identifiers">2.1.1. Identifier Names and Identifiers</a></li>
<li><a href="grammar.html#_this-keyword">2.1.2. This Keyword</a></li>
<li><a href="grammar.html#_regular-expression-literals">2.1.3. Regular Expression Literals</a></li>
<li><a href="grammar.html#_automatic-semicolon-insertion">2.1.4. Automatic Semicolon Insertion</a></li>
<li><a href="grammar.html#_jsdoc">2.1.5. JSDoc</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="#_names">3. Names</a>
<ul class="sectlevel2">
<li><a href="#_access-control">3.1. Access Control</a></li>
<li><a href="#_accessibility-of-types-top-level-variables-and-function-declarations">3.2. Accessibility of Types, Top-Level Variables and Function Declarations</a>
<ul class="sectlevel3">
<li><a href="#_accessibility-of-members">3.2.1. Accessibility of Members</a></li>
<li><a href="#_valid-names">3.2.2. Valid Names</a></li>
<li><a href="#_qualified-names">3.2.3. Qualified Names</a></li>
<li><a href="#_name-duplicates">3.2.4. Name Duplicates</a>
<ul class="sectlevel4">
<li><a href="#_lexical-environment">3.2.4.1. Lexical Environment</a></li>
<li><a href="#_duplicates-and-shadowing">3.2.4.2. Duplicates and Shadowing</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="types.html#_types">4. Types</a>
<ul class="sectlevel2">
<li><a href="types.html#_overview">4.1. Overview</a></li>
<li><a href="types.html#_type-expressions">4.2. Type Expressions</a>
<ul class="sectlevel3">
<li><a href="types.html#_syntax">4.2.1. Syntax</a></li>
<li><a href="types.html#_properties">4.2.2. Properties</a></li>
<li><a href="types.html#_semantics">4.2.3. Semantics</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="types.html#_type-inference">4.3. Type Inference</a></li>
<li><a href="types.html#_generic-and-parameterized-types">4.4. Generic and Parameterized Types</a>
<ul class="sectlevel3">
<li><a href="types.html#_generic-types">4.4.1. Generic Types</a></li>
<li><a href="types.html#_type-variables">4.4.2. Type Variables</a></li>
<li><a href="types.html#_parameterized-types">4.4.3. Parameterized Types</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="types.html#_primitive-ecmascript-types">4.5. Primitive ECMAScript Types</a>
<ul class="sectlevel3">
<li><a href="types.html#_undefined-type">4.5.1. Undefined Type</a></li>
<li><a href="types.html#_null-type">4.5.2. Null Type</a></li>
<li><a href="types.html#_primitive-boolean-type">4.5.3. Primitive Boolean Type</a></li>
<li><a href="types.html#_primitive-string-type">4.5.4. Primitive String Type</a></li>
<li><a href="types.html#_primitive-number-type">4.5.5. Primitive Number Type</a></li>
<li><a href="types.html#_primitive-type-int">4.5.6. Primitive Type int</a></li>
<li><a href="types.html#_primitive-symbol-type">4.5.7. Primitive Symbol Type</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="types.html#_primitive-n4js-types">4.6. Primitive N4JS Types</a>
<ul class="sectlevel3">
<li><a href="types.html#_any-type">4.6.1. Any Type</a>
<ul class="sectlevel4">
<li><a href="types.html#any-type-semantics">4.6.1.1. Semantics</a></li>
<li><a href="types.html#any-type-type-inference">4.6.1.2. Type Inference</a>
<ul class="sectlevel5">
<li><a href="types.html#_default-type-of-variables">4.6.1.2.1. Default Type of Variables</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="types.html#_void-type">4.6.2. Void Type</a>
<ul class="sectlevel4">
<li><a href="types.html#void-type-semantics">4.6.2.1. Semantics</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="types.html#_unknown-type">4.6.3. Unknown Type</a></li>
<li><a href="types.html#_primitive-pathselector-and-i18nkey">4.6.4. Primitive Pathselector and I18nKey</a>
<ul class="sectlevel4">
<li><a href="types.html#pathselector-semantics">4.6.4.1. Semantics</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="types.html#_built-in-ecmascript-object-types">4.7. Built-in ECMAScript Object Types</a>
<ul class="sectlevel3">
<li><a href="types.html#ECMAScript-objects-semantics">4.7.1. Semantics</a></li>
<li><a href="types.html#_object-type">4.7.2. Object Type</a></li>
<li><a href="types.html#_function-object-type">4.7.3. Function-Object-Type</a></li>
<li><a href="types.html#_array-object-type">4.7.4. Array Object Type</a></li>
<li><a href="types.html#_string-object-type">4.7.5. String Object Type</a></li>
<li><a href="types.html#_boolean-object-type">4.7.6. Boolean Object Type</a></li>
<li><a href="types.html#_number-object-type">4.7.7. Number Object Type</a></li>
<li><a href="types.html#_global-object-type">4.7.8. Global Object Type</a></li>
<li><a href="types.html#_symbol">4.7.9. Symbol</a></li>
<li><a href="types.html#_promise">4.7.10. Promise</a></li>
<li><a href="types.html#_iterator-interface">4.7.11. Iterator Interface</a></li>
<li><a href="types.html#_iterable-interface">4.7.12. Iterable Interface</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="types.html#_built-in-n4js-types">4.8. Built-In N4JS Types</a>
<ul class="sectlevel3">
<li><a href="types.html#_n4object">4.8.1. N4Object</a>
<ul class="sectlevel4">
<li><a href="types.html#N4Object-semantics">4.8.1.1. Semantics</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="types.html#_n4class">4.8.2. N4Class</a></li>
<li><a href="types.html#IterableN">4.8.3. IterableN</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="types.html#_type-modifiers">4.9. Type Modifiers</a>
<ul class="sectlevel3">
<li><a href="types.html#Type_Modifiers_Dynamic">4.9.1. Dynamic</a></li>
<li><a href="types.html#_optional-return-types">4.9.2. Optional Return Types</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="types.html#_union-and-intersection-type-composed-types">4.10. Union and Intersection Type (Composed Types)</a>
<ul class="sectlevel3">
<li><a href="types.html#_union-type">4.10.1. Union Type</a>
<ul class="sectlevel4">
<li><a href="types.html#union-type-syntax">4.10.1.1. Syntax</a></li>
<li><a href="types.html#union-type-semantics">4.10.1.2. Semantics</a></li>
<li><a href="types.html#_warnings">4.10.1.3. Warnings</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="types.html#_intersection-type">4.10.2. Intersection Type</a>
<ul class="sectlevel4">
<li><a href="types.html#intersection-type-syntax">4.10.2.1. Syntax</a></li>
<li><a href="types.html#intersection-type-semantics">4.10.2.2. Semantics</a></li>
<li><a href="types.html#_warnings-2">4.10.2.3. Warnings</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="types.html#_composed-types-in-wildcards">4.10.3. Composed Types in Wildcards</a></li>
<li><a href="types.html#_property-access-for-composed-types">4.10.4. Property Access for Composed Types</a>
<ul class="sectlevel4">
<li><a href="types.html#_properties-of-union-type">4.10.4.1. Properties of Union Type</a>
<ul class="sectlevel5">
<li><a href="types.html#_remarks-on-union-type-s-members">4.10.4.1.1. Remarks on union type’s members:</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="types.html#_properties-of-intersection-type">4.10.4.2. Properties of Intersection Type</a>
<ul class="sectlevel5">
<li><a href="types.html#_remarks-on-intersection-type-s-methods">4.10.4.2.1. Remarks on intersection type’s methods:</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="types.html#_constructor-and-classifier-type">4.11. Constructor and Classifier Type</a>
<ul class="sectlevel3">
<li><a href="types.html#_syntax-3">4.11.1. Syntax</a></li>
<li><a href="types.html#_semantics-2">4.11.2. Semantics</a></li>
<li><a href="types.html#_constructors-and-prototypes-in-ecmascript-2015">4.11.3. Constructors and Prototypes in ECMAScript 2015</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="types.html#_this-type">4.12. This Type</a>
<ul class="sectlevel3">
<li><a href="types.html#this-type-syntax">4.12.1. Syntax</a></li>
<li><a href="types.html#this-keyword-semantics">4.12.2. Semantics</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="types.html#_enums">4.13. Enums</a>
<ul class="sectlevel3">
<li><a href="types.html#_enums-n4js">4.13.1. Enums (N4JS)</a>
<ul class="sectlevel4">
<li><a href="types.html#enums-syntax">4.13.1.1. Syntax</a></li>
<li><a href="types.html#enums-semantics">4.13.1.2. Semantics</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="types.html#_string-based-enums">4.13.2. String-Based Enums</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="types.html#_short-hand-syntax">4.14. Short-Hand Syntax</a>
<ul class="sectlevel3">
<li><a href="types.html#_array-short-hand-syntax">4.14.1. Array Short-Hand Syntax</a></li>
<li><a href="types.html#_iterablen-short-hand-syntax">4.14.2. IterableN Short-Hand Syntax</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_classifiers">5. Classifiers</a>
<ul class="sectlevel2">
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_n4js-specific-classifiers">5.1. N4JS Specific Classifiers</a>
<ul class="sectlevel3">
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_properties-2">5.1.1. Properties</a></li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_common-semantics-of-classifiers">5.1.2. Common Semantics of Classifiers</a></li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_classes">5.1.3. Classes</a>
<ul class="sectlevel4">
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_definition-of-classes">5.1.3.1. Definition of Classes</a>
<ul class="sectlevel5">
<li><a href="classifiers.html#class-syntax">5.1.3.1.1. Syntax</a></li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#class-properties">5.1.3.1.2. Properties</a></li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#class-type-inference">5.1.3.1.3. Type Inference</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#class-semantics">5.1.3.2. Semantics</a></li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_final-modifier">5.1.3.3. Final Modifier</a></li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_abstract-classes">5.1.3.4. Abstract Classes</a></li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_non-instantiable-classes">5.1.3.5. Non-Instantiable Classes</a></li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_superclass">5.1.3.6. Superclass</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_interfaces">5.1.4. Interfaces</a>
<ul class="sectlevel4">
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_definition-of-interfaces">5.1.4.1. Definition of Interfaces</a>
<ul class="sectlevel5">
<li><a href="classifiers.html#interfaces-syntax">5.1.4.1.1. Syntax</a></li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#interfaces-properties">5.1.4.1.2. Properties</a></li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#interfaces-type-inference">5.1.4.1.3. Type Inference</a></li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#interfaces-semantics">5.1.4.1.4. Semantics</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_generic-classifiers">5.1.5. Generic Classifiers</a></li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#sec:definition-site-variance">5.1.6. Definition-Site Variance</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_members">5.2. Members</a>
<ul class="sectlevel3">
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_syntax-4">5.2.1. Syntax</a>
<ul class="sectlevel4">
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_properties-3">5.2.1.1. Properties</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_semantics-3">5.2.2. Semantics</a></li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_methods">5.2.3. Methods</a>
<ul class="sectlevel4">
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_syntax-5">5.2.3.1. Syntax</a></li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_properties-4">5.2.3.2. Properties</a></li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_semantics-4">5.2.3.3. Semantics</a></li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_final-methods">5.2.3.4. Final Methods</a></li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_abstract-methods">5.2.3.5. Abstract Methods</a></li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_generic-methods">5.2.3.6. Generic Methods</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_default-methods-in-interfaces">5.2.4. Default Methods in Interfaces</a>
<ul class="sectlevel4">
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_asynchronous-methods">5.2.4.1. Asynchronous Methods</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_constructors">5.2.5. Constructors</a>
<ul class="sectlevel4">
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_structural-this-type-in-constructor">5.2.5.1. Structural This Type in Constructor</a></li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#spec-constructor">5.2.5.2. @Spec Constructor</a></li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_callable-constructors">5.2.5.3. Callable Constructors</a></li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_covariant-constructors">5.2.5.4. Covariant Constructors</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_data-fields">5.2.6. Data Fields</a>
<ul class="sectlevel4">
<li><a href="classifiers.html#data-fields-syntax">5.2.6.1. Syntax</a></li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#data-fields-properties">5.2.6.2. Properties</a>
<ul class="sectlevel5">
<li><a href="classifiers.html#data-fields-semantics">5.2.6.2.1. Semantics</a></li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#data-fields-type-inference">5.2.6.2.2. Type Inference</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_assignment-modifiers">5.2.6.3. Assignment Modifiers</a></li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_field-accessors-getter-setter">5.2.6.4. Field Accessors (Getter/Setter)</a>
<ul class="sectlevel5">
<li><a href="classifiers.html#field-acessors-syntax">5.2.6.4.1. Syntax</a></li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#field-acessors-properties">5.2.6.4.2. Properties</a></li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#field-accessors-semantics">5.2.6.4.3. Semantics</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#optional-fields">5.2.6.5. Optional Fields</a>
<ul class="sectlevel5">
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_syntax-6">5.2.6.5.1. Syntax</a></li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_semantics-5">5.2.6.5.2. Semantics</a></li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_background">5.2.6.5.3. Background</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_static-members">5.2.7. Static Members</a>
<ul class="sectlevel4">
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_access-from-and-to-static-members">5.2.7.1. Access From and To Static Members</a></li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_generic-static-methods">5.2.7.2. Generic static methods</a></li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_static-members-of-interfaces">5.2.7.3. Static Members of Interfaces</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_redefinition-of-members">5.2.8. Redefinition of Members</a>
<ul class="sectlevel4">
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_overriding-of-members">5.2.8.1. Overriding of Members</a></li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_implementation-of-members">5.2.8.2. Implementation of Members</a>
<ul class="sectlevel5">
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_member-consumption">5.2.8.2.1. Member Consumption</a></li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_member-implementation">5.2.8.2.2. Member Implementation</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_structural-typing">5.3. Structural Typing</a>
<ul class="sectlevel3">
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_syntax-7">5.3.1. Syntax</a></li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_definition-site-structural-typing">5.3.2. Definition Site Structural Typing</a></li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_use-site-structural-typing">5.3.3. Use-Site Structural Typing</a></li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#structural-readWriteInit-field-typing">5.3.4. Structural Read-only, Write-only and Initializer Field Typing</a></li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_public-setter-annotated-with-code-providesinitializer-code">5.3.5. Public Setter Annotated With <code>ProvidesInitializer</code></a></li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_structural-types-with-optional-fields">5.3.6. Structural Types With Optional Fields</a></li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_structural-types-with-access-modifier">5.3.7. Structural Types With Access Modifier</a></li>
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_structural-types-with-additional-members">5.3.8. Structural Types With Additional Members</a>
<ul class="sectlevel4">
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_syntax-8">5.3.8.1. Syntax</a>
<ul class="sectlevel5">
<li><a href="classifiers.html#_semantics-6">5.3.8.1.1. Semantics</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="functions.html#_functions">6. Functions</a>
<ul class="sectlevel2">
<li><a href="functions.html#_function-type">6.1. Function Type</a>
<ul class="sectlevel3">
<li><a href="functions.html#_properties-5">6.1.1. Properties</a></li>
<li><a href="functions.html#function-type-inference">6.1.2. Type Inference</a></li>
<li><a href="functions.html#_autoboxing-of-function-type">6.1.3. Autoboxing of Function Type</a></li>
<li><a href="functions.html#_arguments-object">6.1.4. Arguments Object</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="functions.html#_ecmascript-5-function-definition">6.2. ECMAScript 5 Function Definition</a>
<ul class="sectlevel3">
<li><a href="functions.html#_function-declaration">6.2.1. Function Declaration</a>
<ul class="sectlevel4">
<li><a href="functions.html#_syntax-9">6.2.1.1. Syntax</a></li>
<li><a href="functions.html#_semantics-8">6.2.1.2. Semantics</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="functions.html#_function-expression">6.2.2. Function Expression</a>
<ul class="sectlevel4">
<li><a href="functions.html#function-expression-syntax">6.2.2.1. Syntax</a></li>
<li><a href="functions.html#_semantics-and-type-inference">6.2.2.2. Semantics and Type Inference</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="functions.html#_ecmascript-2015-function-definition">6.3. ECMAScript 2015 Function Definition</a>
<ul class="sectlevel3">
<li><a href="functions.html#_formal-parameters">6.3.1. Formal Parameters</a>
<ul class="sectlevel4">
<li><a href="functions.html#Type_Modifiers_Optional">6.3.1.1. Optional Parameters</a></li>
<li><a href="functions.html#Type_Modifiers_Default">6.3.1.2. Default Parameters</a></li>
<li><a href="functions.html#Type_Modifiers_Variadic">6.3.1.3. Variadic</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="functions.html#_generator-functions">6.3.2. Generator Functions</a>
<ul class="sectlevel4">
<li><a href="functions.html#generator-functions-syntax">6.3.2.1. Syntax</a></li>
<li><a href="functions.html#generator-functions-semantics">6.3.2.2. Semantics</a></li>
<li><a href="functions.html#_generator-arrow-functions">6.3.2.3. Generator Arrow Functions</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="functions.html#_arrow-function-expression">6.3.3. Arrow Function Expression</a>
<ul class="sectlevel4">
<li><a href="functions.html#arrow-function-expression-syntax">6.3.3.1. Syntax</a></li>
<li><a href="functions.html#arrow-function-expression-semantics-and-type-inference">6.3.3.2. Semantics and Type Inference</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="functions.html#_ecmascript-proposals-function-definition">6.4. ECMAScript Proposals Function Definition</a>
<ul class="sectlevel3">
<li><a href="functions.html#_asynchronous-functions">6.4.1. Asynchronous Functions</a>
<ul class="sectlevel4">
<li><a href="functions.html#asynchronous-functions-syntax">6.4.1.1. Syntax</a></li>
<li><a href="functions.html#asynchronous-functions-semantics">6.4.1.2. Semantics</a></li>
<li><a href="functions.html#_asynchronous-arrow-functions">6.4.1.3. Asynchronous Arrow Functions</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="functions.html#_n4js-extended-function-definition">6.5. N4JS Extended Function Definition</a>
<ul class="sectlevel3">
<li><a href="functions.html#_generic-functions">6.5.1. Generic Functions</a></li>
<li><a href="functions.html#_promisifiable-functions">6.5.2. Promisifiable Functions</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="conversions_and_reflection.html#_conversions-and-reflection">7. Conversions and Reflection</a>
<ul class="sectlevel2">
<li><a href="conversions_and_reflection.html#_autoboxing-and-coercing">7.1. Autoboxing and Coercing</a>
<ul class="sectlevel3">
<li><a href="conversions_and_reflection.html#_coercing">7.1.1. Coercing</a></li>
<li><a href="conversions_and_reflection.html#_autoboxing-of-primitives">7.1.2. Autoboxing of Primitives</a></li>
<li><a href="conversions_and_reflection.html#_autoboxing-of-function-expressions-and-declarations">7.1.3. Autoboxing of Function Expressions and Declarations</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="conversions_and_reflection.html#_auto-conversion-of-objects">7.2. Auto-Conversion of Objects</a>
<ul class="sectlevel3">
<li><a href="conversions_and_reflection.html#_auto-conversion-of-class-instances">7.2.1. Auto-Conversion of Class Instances</a>
<ul class="sectlevel4">
<li><a href="conversions_and_reflection.html#_auto-conversion-of-interface-instances">7.2.1.1. Auto-Conversion of Interface Instances</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="conversions_and_reflection.html#_auto-conversion-of-enum-literals">7.2.2. Auto-Conversion of Enum Literals</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="conversions_and_reflection.html#_type-cast-and-type-check">7.3. Type Cast and Type Check</a>
<ul class="sectlevel3">
<li><a href="conversions_and_reflection.html#_type-cast">7.3.1. Type Cast</a></li>
<li><a href="conversions_and_reflection.html#_type-check">7.3.2. Type Check</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="conversions_and_reflection.html#_reflection-meta-information">7.4. Reflection meta-information</a>
<ul class="sectlevel3">
<li><a href="conversions_and_reflection.html#_reflection-for-classes">7.4.1. Reflection for Classes</a></li>
<li><a href="conversions_and_reflection.html#_reflection-for-interfaces">7.4.2. Reflection for Interfaces</a></li>
<li><a href="conversions_and_reflection.html#_reflection-for-enumerations">7.4.3. Reflection for Enumerations</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="conversions_and_reflection.html#_conversion-of-primitive-types">7.5. Conversion of primitive types</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="expressions.html#_expressions">8. Expressions</a>
<ul class="sectlevel2">
<li><a href="expressions.html#_ecmascript-5-expressions">8.1. ECMAScript 5 Expressions</a>
<ul class="sectlevel3">
<li><a href="expressions.html#_the-this-literal">8.1.1. The this Literal</a></li>
<li><a href="expressions.html#_identifier">8.1.2. Identifier</a></li>
<li><a href="expressions.html#_literals">8.1.3. Literals</a>
<ul class="sectlevel4">
<li><a href="expressions.html#_integer-literals">8.1.3.1. Integer Literals</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="expressions.html#_array-literal">8.1.4. Array Literal</a></li>
<li><a href="expressions.html#_object-literal">8.1.5. Object Literal</a>
<ul class="sectlevel4">
<li><a href="expressions.html#_properties-6">8.1.5.1. Properties</a></li>
<li><a href="expressions.html#_scoping-and-linking">8.1.5.2. Scoping and linking</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="expressions.html#_parenthesized-expression-and-grouping-operator">8.1.6. Parenthesized Expression and Grouping Operator</a></li>
<li><a href="expressions.html#_property-accessors">8.1.7. Property Accessors</a>
<ul class="sectlevel4">
<li><a href="expressions.html#properties-1">8.1.7.1. Properties</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="expressions.html#_new-expression">8.1.8. New Expression</a></li>
<li><a href="expressions.html#_function-expression-2">8.1.9. Function Expression</a></li>
<li><a href="expressions.html#_function-calls">8.1.10. Function Calls</a></li>
<li><a href="expressions.html#_postfix-expression">8.1.11. Postfix Expression</a></li>
<li><a href="expressions.html#_unary-expression">8.1.12. Unary Expression</a></li>
<li><a href="expressions.html#_multiplicative-expression">8.1.13. Multiplicative Expression</a></li>
<li><a href="expressions.html#_additive-expression">8.1.14. Additive Expression</a>
<ul class="sectlevel4">
<li><a href="expressions.html#type-inference-10">8.1.14.1. Type Inference</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="expressions.html#_bitwise-shift-expression">8.1.15. Bitwise Shift Expression</a></li>
<li><a href="expressions.html#_relational-expression">8.1.16. Relational Expression</a></li>
<li><a href="expressions.html#_equality-expression">8.1.17. Equality Expression</a></li>
<li><a href="expressions.html#_binary-bitwise-expression">8.1.18. Binary Bitwise Expression</a></li>
<li><a href="expressions.html#_binary-logical-expression">8.1.19. Binary Logical Expression</a></li>
<li><a href="expressions.html#_conditional-expression">8.1.20. Conditional Expression</a></li>
<li><a href="expressions.html#_assignment-expression">8.1.21. Assignment Expression</a></li>
<li><a href="expressions.html#_comma-expression">8.1.22. Comma Expression</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="expressions.html#_ecmascript-6-expressions">8.2. ECMAScript 6 Expressions</a>
<ul class="sectlevel3">
<li><a href="expressions.html#_the-super-keyword">8.2.1. The super Keyword</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="expressions.html#_ecmascript-7-expressions">8.3. ECMAScript 7 Expressions</a>
<ul class="sectlevel3">
<li><a href="expressions.html#_await-expression">8.3.1. Await Expression</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="expressions.html#_n4js-specific-expressions">8.4. N4JS Specific Expressions</a>
<ul class="sectlevel3">
<li><a href="expressions.html#_class-expression">8.4.1. Class Expression</a></li>
<li><a href="expressions.html#_cast-as-expression">8.4.2. Cast (As) Expression</a>
<ul class="sectlevel4">
<li><a href="expressions.html#cast-as-expression-semantics-type-inference">8.4.2.1. Semantics and Type Inference</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="expressions.html#Import_Calls">8.4.3. Import Calls</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="expressions.html#compile-time-expressions">8.5. Compile-Time Expressions</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="statements.html#_statements">9. Statements</a>
<ul class="sectlevel2">
<li><a href="statements.html#_ecmascript-5-statements">9.1. ECMAScript 5 Statements</a>
<ul class="sectlevel3">
<li><a href="statements.html#_function-or-field-accessor-bodies">9.1.1. Function or Field Accessor Bodies</a></li>
<li><a href="statements.html#_variable-statement">9.1.2. Variable Statement</a></li>
<li><a href="statements.html#_if-statement">9.1.3. If Statement</a></li>
<li><a href="statements.html#_iteration-statements">9.1.4. Iteration Statements</a></li>
<li><a href="statements.html#_return-statement">9.1.5. Return Statement</a></li>
<li><a href="statements.html#_with-statement">9.1.6. With Statement</a></li>
<li><a href="statements.html#_switch-statement">9.1.7. Switch Statement</a></li>
<li><a href="statements.html#_throw-try-and-catch-statements">9.1.8. Throw, Try, and Catch Statements</a></li>
<li><a href="statements.html#_debugger-statement">9.1.9. Debugger Statement</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="statements.html#_ecmascript-6-statements">9.2. ECMAScript 6 Statements</a>
<ul class="sectlevel3">
<li><a href="statements.html#_let">9.2.1. Let</a></li>
<li><a href="statements.html#_const">9.2.2. Const</a></li>
<li><a href="statements.html#_for-of-statement">9.2.3. <code>for &#8230;&#8203; of</code> statement</a></li>
<li><a href="statements.html#_import-statement">9.2.4. Import Statement</a>
<ul class="sectlevel4">
<li><a href="statements.html#Dynamic_Imports">9.2.4.1. Dynamic Imports</a></li>
<li><a href="statements.html#_immutabilaty-of-imports">9.2.4.2. Immutabilaty of Imports</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="statements.html#_export-statement">9.2.5. Export Statement</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="annotations.html#_annotations">10. Annotations</a>
<ul class="sectlevel2">
<li><a href="annotations.html#_introduction-2">10.1. Introduction</a>
<ul class="sectlevel3">
<li><a href="annotations.html#_syntax-13">10.1.1. Syntax</a></li>
<li><a href="annotations.html#_properties-7">10.1.2. Properties</a></li>
<li><a href="annotations.html#_element-specific-annotations">10.1.3. Element-Specific Annotations</a></li>
<li><a href="annotations.html#_general-annotations">10.1.4. General Annotations</a>
<ul class="sectlevel4">
<li><a href="annotations.html#_idebug">10.1.4.1. IDEBUG</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="annotations.html#idebug-syntax">10.1.5. Syntax</a>
<ul class="sectlevel4">
<li><a href="annotations.html#_semantics-11">10.1.5.1. Semantics</a></li>
<li><a href="annotations.html#_suppress-warnings">10.1.5.2. Suppress Warnings</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="annotations.html#_declaration-of-annotations">10.2. Declaration of Annotations</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="extended_fetaures.html#_extended-fetaures">11. Extended Fetaures</a>
<ul class="sectlevel2">
<li><a href="extended_fetaures.html#_array-and-object-destructuring">11.1. Array and Object Destructuring</a>
<ul class="sectlevel3">
<li><a href="extended_fetaures.html#_syntax-14">11.1.1. Syntax</a></li>
<li><a href="extended_fetaures.html#_semantics-12">11.1.2. Semantics</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="extended_fetaures.html#_dependency-injection">11.2. Dependency Injection</a>
<ul class="sectlevel3">
<li><a href="extended_fetaures.html#_di-components-and-injectors">11.2.1. DI Components and Injectors</a>
<ul class="sectlevel4">
<li><a href="extended_fetaures.html#_dicomponent-relations">11.2.1.1. DIComponent Relations</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="extended_fetaures.html#_binders-and-bindings">11.2.2. Binders and Bindings</a></li>
<li><a href="extended_fetaures.html#_injection-points">11.2.3. Injection Points</a>
<ul class="sectlevel4">
<li><a href="extended_fetaures.html#_field-injection">11.2.3.1. Field Injection</a></li>
<li><a href="extended_fetaures.html#_constructor-injection">11.2.3.2. Constructor Injection</a></li>
<li><a href="extended_fetaures.html#_method-injection">11.2.3.3. Method Injection</a>
<ul class="sectlevel5">
<li><a href="extended_fetaures.html#_provider">11.2.3.3.1. Provider</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="extended_fetaures.html#_n4js-di-life-cycle-and-scopes">11.2.4. N4JS DI Life Cycle and Scopes</a>
<ul class="sectlevel4">
<li><a href="extended_fetaures.html#_injection-cylces">11.2.4.1. Injection Cylces</a></li>
<li><a href="extended_fetaures.html#_default-scope">11.2.4.2. Default Scope</a></li>
<li><a href="extended_fetaures.html#_singleton-scope">11.2.4.3. Singleton Scope</a></li>
<li><a href="extended_fetaures.html#_per-injection-chain-singleton">11.2.4.4. Per Injection Chain Singleton</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="extended_fetaures.html#_validation-of-callsites-targeting-n4injector-methods">11.2.5. Validation of callsites targeting N4Injector methods</a></li>
<li><a href="extended_fetaures.html#_n4js-di-annotations">11.2.6. N4JS DI Annotations</a>
<ul class="sectlevel4">
<li><a href="extended_fetaures.html#_n4js-di-generateinjector">11.2.6.1. N4JS DI @GenerateInjector</a></li>
<li><a href="extended_fetaures.html#_n4js-di-withparentinjector">11.2.6.2. N4JS DI @WithParentInjector</a></li>
<li><a href="extended_fetaures.html#_n4js-di-usebinder">11.2.6.3. N4JS DI @UseBinder</a></li>
<li><a href="extended_fetaures.html#_n4js-di-binder">11.2.6.4. N4JS DI @Binder</a></li>
<li><a href="extended_fetaures.html#_n4js-di-bind">11.2.6.5. N4JS DI @Bind</a></li>
<li><a href="extended_fetaures.html#_n4js-di-provides">11.2.6.6. N4JS DI @Provides</a></li>
<li><a href="extended_fetaures.html#_n4js-di-inject">11.2.6.7. N4JS DI @Inject</a></li>
<li><a href="extended_fetaures.html#_n4js-di-singleton">11.2.6.8. N4JS DI @Singleton</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="extended_fetaures.html#_test-support">11.3. Test Support</a></li>
<li><a href="extended_fetaures.html#_polyfill-definitions">11.4. Polyfill Definitions</a>
<ul class="sectlevel3">
<li><a href="extended_fetaures.html#_runtime-polyfill-definitions">11.4.1. Runtime Polyfill Definitions</a></li>
<li><a href="extended_fetaures.html#_static-polyfill-definitions">11.4.2. Static Polyfill Definitions</a></li>
<li><a href="extended_fetaures.html#_transpiling-static-polyfilled-classes">11.4.3. Transpiling static polyfilled classes</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="components.html#_components">12. Components</a>
<ul class="sectlevel2">
<li><a href="components.html#_overview-2">12.1. Overview</a></li>
<li><a href="components.html#Component_Types">12.2. Component Types</a>
<ul class="sectlevel3">
<li><a href="components.html#_libraries">12.2.1. Libraries</a></li>
<li><a href="components.html#_runtime-environment-and-runtime-libraries">12.2.2. Runtime Environment and Runtime Libraries</a></li>
<li><a href="components.html#_tests">12.2.3. Tests</a></li>
<li><a href="components.html#_type-definitions">12.2.4. Type Definitions</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="components.html#package-json">12.3. Package.json File</a>
<ul class="sectlevel3">
<li><a href="components.html#_basic-properties">12.3.1. Basic Properties</a></li>
<li><a href="components.html#_n4js-properties">12.3.2. N4JS Properties</a></li>
<li><a href="components.html#_constraints">12.3.3. Constraints</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="components.html#_support-for-npm-scopes">12.4. Support for NPM Scopes</a></li>
<li><a href="components.html#sec:N4JS-Type-Definitions">12.5. N4JS Type Definitions</a>
<ul class="sectlevel3">
<li><a href="components.html#_specify-type-definition">12.5.1. Specify Type Definition</a></li>
<li><a href="components.html#_name-conventions">12.5.2. Name Conventions</a></li>
<li><a href="components.html#_version-conventions">12.5.3. Version Conventions</a>
<ul class="sectlevel4">
<li><a href="components.html#_define-a-new-type-definition-package">12.5.3.1. Define a New Type Definition Package</a></li>
<li><a href="components.html#_using-a-type-definition-package">12.5.3.2. Using a Type Definition Package</a></li>
<li><a href="components.html#_rational">12.5.3.3. Rational</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="components.html#_modules">12.6. Modules</a></li>
<li><a href="components.html#_api-and-implementation-component">12.7. API and Implementation Component</a>
<ul class="sectlevel3">
<li><a href="components.html#_execution-of-api-and-implementation-components">12.7.1. Execution of API and Implementation Components</a></li>
<li><a href="components.html#_api-and-implementation-with-di">12.7.2. API and Implementation With DI</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="plainjs.html#_plainjs">13. PlainJS</a>
<ul class="sectlevel2">
<li><a href="plainjs.html#_type-inference-and-validation-for-plain-js">13.1. Type Inference and Validation for Plain JS</a></li>
<li><a href="plainjs.html#_external-declarations">13.2. External Declarations</a>
<ul class="sectlevel3">
<li><a href="plainjs.html#_declaring-externals">13.2.1. Declaring externals</a></li>
<li><a href="plainjs.html#_instantiating-external-classes">13.2.2. Instantiating external classes</a></li>
<li><a href="plainjs.html#_implementation-of-external-declarations">13.2.3. Implementation of External Declarations</a></li>
<li><a href="plainjs.html#_example">13.2.4. Example</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="plainjs.html#_global-definitions">13.3. Global Definitions</a></li>
<li><a href="plainjs.html#_runtime-definitions">13.4. Runtime Definitions</a></li>
<li><a href="plainjs.html#_applying-polyfills">13.5. Applying Polyfills</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="jsdoc.html#_jsdoc-2">14. JSDoc</a>
<ul class="sectlevel2">
<li><a href="jsdoc.html#_general-n4jsdoc-features">14.1. General N4JSDoc Features</a>
<ul class="sectlevel3">
<li><a href="jsdoc.html#_provided-inline-tags">14.1.1. Provided Inline Tags</a>
<ul class="sectlevel4">
<li><a href="jsdoc.html#jsdoc_tag__code">14.1.1.1. @code</a></li>
<li><a href="jsdoc.html#jsdoc_tag__link">14.1.1.2. @link</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="jsdoc.html#_n4jsdoc-for-user-projects">14.2. N4JSdoc for User Projects</a>
<ul class="sectlevel3">
<li><a href="jsdoc.html#_standard-tags">14.2.1. Standard Tags</a>
<ul class="sectlevel4">
<li><a href="jsdoc.html#_-author">14.2.1.1. @author</a></li>
<li><a href="jsdoc.html#jsdoc_tag_param">14.2.1.2. @param</a></li>
<li><a href="jsdoc.html#jsdoc_tag_return">14.2.1.3. @return</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="jsdoc.html#_test-related-tags">14.2.2. Test Related Tags</a>
<ul class="sectlevel4">
<li><a href="jsdoc.html#jsdoc_tag__testee">14.2.2.1. @testee</a></li>
<li><a href="jsdoc.html#jsdoc_tag__testeeFromType">14.2.2.2. @testeeFromType</a></li>
<li><a href="jsdoc.html#_testeeType_and__testeeMember">14.2.2.3. @testeeType and @testeeMember</a></li>
<li><a href="jsdoc.html#jsdoc_tag_reqid_in_Tests">14.2.2.4. @reqid in Tests</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="jsdoc.html#_n4jsdoc-for-api-and-implementation-projects">14.3. N4JSDoc for API and Implementation Projects</a>
<ul class="sectlevel3">
<li><a href="jsdoc.html#jsdoc_tag__apiNote">14.3.1. @apiNote</a></li>
<li><a href="jsdoc.html#API_Project_Tags">14.3.2. API Project Tags</a>
<ul class="sectlevel4">
<li><a href="jsdoc.html#jsdoc_tag_apiState">14.3.2.1. @apiState</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="jsx.html#_jsx">15. JSX</a>
<ul class="sectlevel2">
<li><a href="jsx.html#_jsx-support">15.1. JSX Support</a></li>
<li><a href="jsx.html#_jsx-backend">15.2. JSX Backend</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="grammars.html#_grammars">16. Grammars</a>
<ul class="sectlevel2">
<li><a href="grammars.html#_type-expressions-grammar">16.1. Type Expressions Grammar</a></li>
<li><a href="grammars.html#_n4js-language-grammar">16.2. N4JS Language Grammar</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="jsobjects.html#_jsobjects">17. JSObjects</a>
<ul class="sectlevel2">
<li><a href="jsobjects.html#_object">17.1. Object</a></li>
<li><a href="jsobjects.html#_string">17.2. String</a></li>
<li><a href="jsobjects.html#_boolean">17.3. Boolean</a></li>
<li><a href="jsobjects.html#_number">17.4. Number</a>
<ul class="sectlevel3">
<li><a href="jsobjects.html#_static-attributes">17.4.1. Static Attributes</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="jsobjects.html#function">17.5. Function</a></li>
<li><a href="jsobjects.html#_error">17.6. Error</a></li>
<li><a href="jsobjects.html#_array">17.7. Array</a></li>
<li><a href="jsobjects.html#_date">17.8. Date</a></li>
<li><a href="jsobjects.html#_math">17.9. Math</a>
<ul class="sectlevel3">
<li><a href="jsobjects.html#static-attributes-1">17.9.1. Static Attributes</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="jsobjects.html#_regexp">17.10. RegExp</a></li>
<li><a href="jsobjects.html#_json">17.11. JSON</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="n4js_objects.html#_n4js-objects">18. N4JS Objects</a>
<ul class="sectlevel2">
<li><a href="n4js_objects.html#_reflection-model">18.1. Reflection Model</a></li>
<li><a href="n4js_objects.html#_error-types">18.2. Error Types</a>
<ul class="sectlevel3">
<li><a href="n4js_objects.html#_n4apinotimplemented">18.2.1. N4ApiNotImplemented</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="appendix_a_acronyms.html#_acronyms">Appendix A: Acronyms</a></li>
<li><a href="appendix_b_license.html#sec:License">Appendix B: License</a></li>
<li><a href="appendix_c_bibliography.html#_bibliography">Appendix C: Bibliography</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
<div id="content"><div class="sect1">
<h2 id="_names"><a class="anchor" href="#_names"></a><a class="link" href="#_names">3. Names</a></h2>
<div class="sectionbody">
<div class="paragraph">
<p><em>Visibility</em> defines the scope in which a declaration is visible, that is in which context references can be bound to the declaration.
<em>Access control</em> defines the extent to which types and members are accessible beyond their immediate context.
Access control may, therefore, restrict the visibility of a declaration by limiting its scope.</p>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p><em>Extensibility</em> refers to whether a given type can be subtyped, or in the case of members, whether they can be overridden.
Access control is a prerequisite for extensibility which is further explained in <a href="classifiers.html#_n4js-specific-classifiers">N4JS Specific Classifiers</a></p>
</div>
<div class="sect2 language-n4js">
<h3 id="_access-control"><a class="anchor" href="#_access-control"></a><a class="link" href="#_access-control">3.1. Access Control</a></h3>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>Types from one project may or may not be made accessible to another project.
Likewise, members from a given type may or may not be made accessible to members existing outside that type.
For example, if a developer writes an application which uses a library, which types within that library can the application see?
Given a type that is set as visible, which members of that type can the application see?</p>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>Accessing a type or member actually means that a reference is bound to a
declaration with the same identifier.</p>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>We distinguish the following contexts from which an element is accessed
as follows:</p>
</div>
<div class="olist arabic">
<ol class="arabic">
<li>
<p><strong>Module or type</strong>: access from elements in the same module or type.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>Subtype</strong>: access from a subtype.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>Project</strong>: access from the same project.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>Vendor</strong>: access from different project of the same vendor.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><strong>World</strong>: access from anything else.</p>
</li>
</ol>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>Accessibility is defined by modifiers on types and members, e.g <code>public</code>, <code>protected</code>, <code>project</code>, <code>private</code>, via the <code>export</code> statement, and by the <code>@Internal</code> annotation.
Extensibility is defined by the <code>@Final</code> annotation respectively.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div class="sect2 language-n4js">
<h3 id="_accessibility-of-types-top-level-variables-and-function-declarations"><a class="anchor" href="#_accessibility-of-types-top-level-variables-and-function-declarations"></a><a class="link" href="#_accessibility-of-types-top-level-variables-and-function-declarations">3.2. Accessibility of Types, Top-Level Variables and Function Declarations</a></h3>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>We define types (classes, interfaces, enums) whereby each type has members (fields and methods, depending on the kind of type).
When we define a type, we need to define whether it is visible only for the specifying module, project or whether that type should be accessible from outside of that project.</p>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>The same is true for variable declarations and function declarations defined as top-level elements of a module.</p>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>The following type access modifiers are supported by N4JS:</p>
</div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content">
<pre class="highlight"><code class="language-xtext" data-lang="xtext">enum TypeAccessModifier: project
| public;</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>If a type is not exported, its visibility is private.
If a type has declared visibility <code>public</code>, it may additionally be marked as internal via the annotation <code>@Internal</code>.
Thus, we have the following set of type access modifiers:</p>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>TAM = <code>private</code> <code>project</code> <code>public@Internal</code> <code>public</code></p>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>That is, in N4JS, only the type access modifiers and are available.
The redundant <code>project</code> modifier serves only documentation purpose and can be synthesized if the <code>export</code> modifier is preset.</p>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>All other modifiers used here are synthesized as shown in the next example:</p>
</div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="title">Synthesized Type Access Modifiers in N4JS</div>
<div class="content">
<pre class="highlight"><code class="language-n4js" data-lang="n4js">class C0 {} // private
export class C1 {} // project
export project class C1 {} // project
export @Internal public class C1 {} // public@Internal
export public class C2 {} // public
var v0; // private
export var v1; // project
export project var v1; // project
export @Internal public var v3; // public@Internal
export public var v2; // public
function f0() {} // private
export function f1() {} // project
export project function f1() {} // project
export @Internal public function f3() {} // public@Internal
export public function f2() {} // public</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>The access control levels are defined as listed in <a href="#tab:type-access-control">Type Access Control</a>.</p>
</div>
<table id="tab:type-access-control" class="tableblock frame-all grid-all spread">
<caption class="title">Table 1. Type Access Control</caption>
<colgroup>
<col style="width: 20%;">
<col style="width: 20%;">
<col style="width: 20%;">
<col style="width: 20%;">
<col style="width: 20%;">
</colgroup>
<thead>
<tr>
<th class="tableblock halign-center valign-top" colspan="5"><strong>Type Access</strong></th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<th class="tableblock halign-center valign-top"><p class="tableblock">Modifier</p></th>
<th class="tableblock halign-center valign-top"><p class="tableblock">Module</p></th>
<th class="tableblock halign-center valign-top"><p class="tableblock">Project</p></th>
<th class="tableblock halign-center valign-top"><p class="tableblock">Vendor</p></th>
<th class="tableblock halign-center valign-top"><p class="tableblock">World</p></th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tableblock halign-center valign-top"><p class="tableblock"><code>private</code></p></td>
<td class="tableblock halign-center valign-top"><p class="tableblock">yes</p></td>
<td class="tableblock halign-center valign-top"><p class="tableblock">no</p></td>
<td class="tableblock halign-center valign-top"><p class="tableblock">no</p></td>
<td class="tableblock halign-center valign-top"><p class="tableblock">no</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tableblock halign-center valign-top"><p class="tableblock"><code>project</code></p></td>
<td class="tableblock halign-center valign-top"><p class="tableblock">yes</p></td>
<td class="tableblock halign-center valign-top"><p class="tableblock">yes</p></td>
<td class="tableblock halign-center valign-top"><p class="tableblock">no</p></td>
<td class="tableblock halign-center valign-top"><p class="tableblock">no</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tableblock halign-center valign-top"><p class="tableblock"><code>public@Internal</code></p></td>
<td class="tableblock halign-center valign-top"><p class="tableblock">yes</p></td>
<td class="tableblock halign-center valign-top"><p class="tableblock">yes</p></td>
<td class="tableblock halign-center valign-top"><p class="tableblock">yes</p></td>
<td class="tableblock halign-center valign-top"><p class="tableblock">no</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tableblock halign-center valign-top"><p class="tableblock"><code>public</code></p></td>
<td class="tableblock halign-center valign-top"><p class="tableblock">yes</p></td>
<td class="tableblock halign-center valign-top"><p class="tableblock">yes</p></td>
<td class="tableblock halign-center valign-top"><p class="tableblock">yes</p></td>
<td class="tableblock halign-center valign-top"><p class="tableblock">yes</p></td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<div class="paragraph">
<p><code>TAM</code> is a totally ordered set:</p>
</div>
<div class="openblock">
<div class="content">
<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" display="block"><mstyle mathvariant="monospace"><mtext>private</mtext></mstyle><mo>&lt;</mo><mstyle mathvariant="monospace"><mtext>project</mtext></mstyle><mo>&lt;</mo><mstyle mathvariant="monospace"><mtext>public@Internal</mtext></mstyle><mo>&lt;</mo><mstyle mathvariant="monospace"><mtext>public</mtext></mstyle></math>
</div>
</div>
<div class="openblock requirement">
<div class="content">
<div class="paragraph">
<p><a id="Req-IDE-3"></a><strong>Req. IDE-3:</strong> <a href="#Req-IDE-3">Type Access Modifiers</a> (ver. 1)</p>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>The following constraints for type access modifiers for a given type <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mi>T</mi></math> (which may be a classifier declaration, a function or a variable) must hold:</p>
</div>
<div class="ulist">
<ul>
<li>
<p>It is an error if <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mi>T</mi></math> is not exported but defined as <code>project</code>, <code>public</code> or <code>public@Internal</code>.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>It is an error if an annotation <code>@Internal</code> is present on a module private or <code>project</code> visible type.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>The type modifier for all built-in ECMAScript types is <code>public</code>.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>The <em>default modifier</em> for user declared exported declarations is <code>project</code>.
That is, this modifier is assumed if no modifier is explicitly specified.</p>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="openblock definition">
<div class="content">
<div class="paragraph">
<p><a id="type_accessibility_t"></a><strong>Definition:</strong> <a href="#type_accessibility_t">Type Accessibility T</a></p>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>The function <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><msub><mi>α</mi><mi>T</mi></msub><mi>:</mi><mi>T</mi><mi>y</mi><mi>p</mi><mi>e</mi><mi>R</mi><mi>e</mi><mi>f</mi><mi>e</mi><mi>r</mi><mi>e</mi><mi>n</mi><mi>c</mi><mi>e</mi><mo>×</mo><mi>T</mi><mi>y</mi><mi>p</mi><mi>e</mi><mi>D</mi><mi>e</mi><mi>c</mi><mi>l</mi><mi>a</mi><mi>r</mi><mi>a</mi><mi>t</mi><mi>i</mi><mi>o</mi><mi>n</mi><mo>⇒</mo><mi>B</mi><mi>o</mi><mi>o</mi><mi>l</mi><mi>e</mi><mi>a</mi><mi>n</mi></math> computes whether a given type, (top-level) variable or function
reference can access the declaration that it references.
<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><msub><mi>α</mi><mi>T</mi></msub></math> is defined with <a href="#tab:type-access-control">Type Access Control</a>.</p>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>Formally, we define <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><msub><mi>α</mi><mi>T</mi></msub></math> for a given reference <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mi>r</mi></math> and a module top level variable, function or type declaration <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mi>D</mi></math> as follows <sup class="footnote">[<a id="_footnoteref_4" class="footnote" href="appendix_c_bibliography.html#_footnote_4" title="View footnote.">4</a>]</sup>:</p>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mfrac><mrow><mi>D</mi><mo>.</mo><mi>a</mi><mi>c</mi><mi>c</mi><mo>=</mo><mstyle mathvariant="monospace"><mtext>public</mtext></mstyle></mrow><mrow><msub><mi>α</mi><mi>T</mi></msub><mfenced close=")" open="("><mi>r</mi><mi>D</mi></mfenced></mrow></mfrac></math><br>
<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mfrac><mrow><mi>D</mi><mo>.</mo><mi>a</mi><mi>c</mi><mi>c</mi><mo>=</mo><mstyle mathvariant="monospace"><mtext>public@Internal</mtext></mstyle><mspace width="3.0mm"/><mi>r</mi><mo>.</mo><mi>v</mi><mi>e</mi><mi>n</mi><mi>d</mi><mi>o</mi><mi>r</mi><mo>=</mo><mi>D</mi><mo>.</mo><mi>v</mi><mi>e</mi><mi>n</mi><mi>d</mi><mi>o</mi><mi>r</mi></mrow><mrow><msub><mi>α</mi><mi>T</mi></msub><mfenced close=")" open="("><mi>r</mi><mi>D</mi></mfenced></mrow></mfrac></math><br>
<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mfrac><mrow><mi>D</mi><mo>.</mo><mi>a</mi><mi>c</mi><mi>c</mi><mo>=</mo><mstyle mathvariant="monospace"><mtext>project</mtext></mstyle><mspace width="3.0mm"/><mi>r</mi><mo>.</mo><mi>p</mi><mi>r</mi><mi>o</mi><mi>j</mi><mi>e</mi><mi>c</mi><mi>t</mi><mo>=</mo><mi>D</mi><mo>.</mo><mi>p</mi><mi>r</mi><mi>o</mi><mi>j</mi><mi>e</mi><mi>c</mi><mi>t</mi></mrow><mrow><msub><mi>α</mi><mi>T</mi></msub><mfenced close=")" open="("><mi>r</mi><mi>D</mi></mfenced></mrow></mfrac></math><br>
<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mfrac><mrow><mi>D</mi><mo>.</mo><mi>a</mi><mi>c</mi><mi>c</mi><mo>=</mo><mstyle mathvariant="monospace"><mtext>private</mtext></mstyle><mspace width="3.0mm"/><mi>r</mi><mo>.</mo><mi>m</mi><mi>o</mi><mi>d</mi><mi>u</mi><mi>l</mi><mi>e</mi><mo>=</mo><mi>D</mi><mo>.</mo><mi>m</mi><mi>o</mi><mi>d</mi><mi>u</mi><mi>l</mi><mi>e</mi></mrow><mrow><msub><mi>α</mi><mi>T</mi></msub><mfenced close=")" open="("><mi>r</mi><mi>D</mi></mfenced></mrow></mfrac></math></p>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>If the type of the arguments is clear from the context, we simply write <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mi>α</mi><mfenced close=")" open="("><mi>r</mi><mi>D</mi></mfenced></math> instead of <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><msub><mi>α</mi><mi>T</mi></msub><mfenced close=")" open="("><mi>r</mi><mi>D</mi></mfenced></math>.</p>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>Accessibility for types is only checked for types that manifest themselves in the concrete syntax of the N4JS file.
Types that do not have to be written to concrete syntax may be used even if they are generally not accessible.
This is illustrated by <a href="#ex:implicit-type-references">Implicit, allowed type references in N4JS</a>:</p>
</div>
<div id="ex:implicit-type-references" class="exampleblock">
<div class="title">Example 1. Implicit, allowed type references in N4JS</div>
<div class="content">
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content">
<pre class="highlight"><code class="language-n4js" data-lang="n4js">export public class D {
public takeC(): C { .. }
public acceptC(c: C): void { .. }
}
/* private */ class C {}</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content">
<pre class="highlight"><code class="language-n4js" data-lang="n4js">var d: D = new D()
d.acceptC( d.takeC() )</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="sect3">
<h4 id="_accessibility-of-members"><a class="anchor" href="#_accessibility-of-members"></a><a class="link" href="#_accessibility-of-members">3.2.1. Accessibility of Members</a></h4>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>Accessibility at the member level is only applicable when the type itself is accessible.
If you cannot access the type, you cannot access any of its members.
Note that inherited members (from an interface or class) become members of a class.
For example, if <code>B extends A</code>, and if <code>A</code> is not accessible to some client <code>C</code> but <code>B</code> is, then the members of <code>A</code> are indirectly accessible to <code>C</code> in so far as they are accessed via <code>B</code>.
This is true in particular for interfaces, as their properties are possibly merged into the consuming class (cf. <a href="classifiers.html#_implementation-of-members">Implementation of Members</a>).</p>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>The following member access modifiers are supported by N4JS:</p>
</div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content">
<pre class="highlight"><code class="language-xtext" data-lang="xtext">enum MemberAccessModifier: private
| project
| protected
| public;</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>The modifiers <code>protected</code> and <code>public</code> may be annotated with <code>@Internal</code>.
Thus, we can define the following set of member access modifiers:</p>
</div>
<div class="openblock">
<div class="content">
<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" display="block"><mtable><mtr><mtd><mi>M</mi><mi>A</mi><mi>M</mi><mo>=</mo><mrow><mo>{</mo><mspace width="3.0mm"/></mrow></mtd></mtr><mtr><mtd><mstyle mathvariant="monospace"><mtext>private</mtext></mstyle><mo>,</mo><mstyle mathvariant="monospace"><mtext>protected@Internal</mtext></mstyle><mo>,</mo><mstyle mathvariant="monospace"><mtext>protected</mtext></mstyle><mo>,</mo></mtd></mtr><mtr><mtd><mstyle mathvariant="monospace"><mtext>project</mtext></mstyle><mo>,</mo><mstyle mathvariant="monospace"><mtext>public@Internal</mtext></mstyle><mo>,</mo><mstyle mathvariant="monospace"><mtext>public</mtext></mstyle></mtd></mtr><mtr><mtd><mrow><mo>}</mo></mrow></mtd></mtr></mtable></math>
</div>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p><code>protected@Internal</code> and <code>public@Internal</code> are synthesized tags and were introduced as shorthand notation for the <code>@Internal</code> annotation together with <code>protected</code> or <code>public</code> access modifiers.
The <code>project</code> modifier is the default one and it can be omitted.
As with the type access modifiers, not all member access modifiers are available in N4JS.
Instead, they are synthesized from different construct as shown in the next example.</p>
</div>
<div class="exampleblock">
<div class="title">Example 2. Synthesized Member Access Modifiers in N4JS</div>
<div class="content">
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content">
<pre class="highlight"><code class="language-n4js" data-lang="n4js">export @Internal public class C {
private f0; // private
f1; // project
project f2; // project
@Internal protected f3; // protected@Internal
protected f4; // protected
@Internal public f5; // public@Internal
public f6; // public
private m0() {} // private
m1() {} // project
project m2() {} // project
@Internal protected m3() {} // protected@Internal
protected m4() {} // protected
@Internal public m5() {} // public@Internal
public m6() {} // public
}</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p><code>MAM</code> does not define a totally ordered set. However, its subset</p>
</div>
<div class="openblock">
<div class="content">
<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" display="block"><mi>M</mi><mi>A</mi><mi>M</mi><mo>\</mo><mfenced close="}" open="{"><mstyle mathvariant="monospace"><mtext>public@Internal</mtext></mstyle></mfenced></math>
</div>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>is a totally ordered set <sup class="footnote">[<a id="_footnoteref_5" class="footnote" href="appendix_c_bibliography.html#_footnote_5" title="View footnote.">5</a>]</sup> :</p>
</div>
<div class="openblock">
<div class="content">
<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" display="block"><mstyle mathvariant="monospace"><mtext>private</mtext></mstyle><mo>&lt;</mo><mstyle mathvariant="monospace"><mtext>project</mtext></mstyle><mo>&lt;</mo><mstyle mathvariant="monospace"><mtext>protected@Internal</mtext></mstyle><mo>&lt;</mo><mstyle mathvariant="monospace"><mtext>protected</mtext></mstyle><mo>&lt;</mo><mstyle mathvariant="monospace"><mtext>public</mtext></mstyle></math>
</div>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p><a href="#tab:Member-Access-Controls">Member Access Control</a> shows which members are accessible from where.</p>
</div>
<table id="tab:Member-Access-Controls" class="tableblock frame-all grid-all spread">
<caption class="title">Table 2. Member Access Control</caption>
<colgroup>
<col style="width: 25%;">
<col style="width: 12.5%;">
<col style="width: 12.5%;">
<col style="width: 12.5%;">
<col style="width: 12.5%;">
<col style="width: 12.5%;">
<col style="width: 12.5%;">
</colgroup>
<thead>
<tr>
<th class="tableblock halign-left valign-top">Access Modifier</th>
<th class="tableblock halign-center valign-top">Inside Module</th>
<th class="tableblock halign-center valign-top">Inside Project</th>
<th class="tableblock halign-center valign-top">Vendor</th>
<th class="tableblock halign-center valign-top">Vendor Subtypes</th>
<th class="tableblock halign-center valign-top">Other Projects</th>
<th class="tableblock halign-center valign-top">Everywhere</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td class="tableblock halign-left valign-top"><p class="tableblock"><code>private</code></p></td>
<td class="tableblock halign-center valign-top"><p class="tableblock">yes</p></td>
<td class="tableblock halign-center valign-top"><p class="tableblock">no</p></td>
<td class="tableblock halign-center valign-top"><p class="tableblock">no</p></td>
<td class="tableblock halign-center valign-top"><p class="tableblock">no</p></td>
<td class="tableblock halign-center valign-top"><p class="tableblock">no</p></td>
<td class="tableblock halign-center valign-top"><p class="tableblock">no</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tableblock halign-left valign-top"><p class="tableblock"><code>project</code></p></td>
<td class="tableblock halign-center valign-top"><p class="tableblock">yes</p></td>
<td class="tableblock halign-center valign-top"><p class="tableblock">yes</p></td>
<td class="tableblock halign-center valign-top"><p class="tableblock">no</p></td>
<td class="tableblock halign-center valign-top"><p class="tableblock">no</p></td>
<td class="tableblock halign-center valign-top"><p class="tableblock">no</p></td>
<td class="tableblock halign-center valign-top"><p class="tableblock">no</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tableblock halign-left valign-top"><p class="tableblock"><code>protected@Internal</code></p></td>
<td class="tableblock halign-center valign-top"><p class="tableblock">yes</p></td>
<td class="tableblock halign-center valign-top"><p class="tableblock">yes</p></td>
<td class="tableblock halign-center valign-top"><p class="tableblock">yes</p></td>
<td class="tableblock halign-center valign-top"><p class="tableblock">no</p></td>
<td class="tableblock halign-center valign-top"><p class="tableblock">no</p></td>
<td class="tableblock halign-center valign-top"><p class="tableblock">no</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tableblock halign-left valign-top"><p class="tableblock"><code>protected</code></p></td>
<td class="tableblock halign-center valign-top"><p class="tableblock">yes</p></td>
<td class="tableblock halign-center valign-top"><p class="tableblock">yes</p></td>
<td class="tableblock halign-center valign-top"><p class="tableblock">yes</p></td>
<td class="tableblock halign-center valign-top"><p class="tableblock">no</p></td>
<td class="tableblock halign-center valign-top"><p class="tableblock">yes</p></td>
<td class="tableblock halign-center valign-top"><p class="tableblock">no</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tableblock halign-left valign-top"><p class="tableblock"><code>public@Internal</code></p></td>
<td class="tableblock halign-center valign-top"><p class="tableblock">yes</p></td>
<td class="tableblock halign-center valign-top"><p class="tableblock">yes</p></td>
<td class="tableblock halign-center valign-top"><p class="tableblock">yes</p></td>
<td class="tableblock halign-center valign-top"><p class="tableblock">yes</p></td>
<td class="tableblock halign-center valign-top"><p class="tableblock">no</p></td>
<td class="tableblock halign-center valign-top"><p class="tableblock">no</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tableblock halign-left valign-top"><p class="tableblock"><code>public</code></p></td>
<td class="tableblock halign-center valign-top"><p class="tableblock">yes</p></td>
<td class="tableblock halign-center valign-top"><p class="tableblock">yes</p></td>
<td class="tableblock halign-center valign-top"><p class="tableblock">yes</p></td>
<td class="tableblock halign-center valign-top"><p class="tableblock">yes</p></td>
<td class="tableblock halign-center valign-top"><p class="tableblock">yes</p></td>
<td class="tableblock halign-center valign-top"><p class="tableblock">yes</p></td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<div class="openblock definition">
<div class="content">
<div class="paragraph">
<p><a id="type_and_member_accessibility_relation"></a><strong>Definition:</strong> <a href="#type_and_member_accessibility_relation">Type and Member Accessibility Relation</a></p>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>We define the relation</p>
</div>
<div class="openblock">
<div class="content">
<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" display="block"><mo>=</mo><mspace width="1.0em"/><mi>:</mi><mspace width="1.0em"/><mi>T</mi><mi>A</mi><mi>M</mi><mo>×</mo><mi>M</mi><mi>A</mi><mi>M</mi></math>
</div>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>as follows:</p>
</div>
<div class="openblock">
<div class="content">
<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" display="block"><mtable><mtr><mtd><mo>=</mo><mspace width="1.0em"/><mi>:</mi><mi>:</mi><mo>=</mo><mrow><mo>{</mo></mrow></mtd><mtd><mfenced close=")" open="("><mstyle mathvariant="monospace"><mtext>private</mtext></mstyle><mstyle mathvariant="monospace"><mtext>private</mtext></mstyle></mfenced><mo>,</mo><mfenced close=")" open="("><mstyle mathvariant="monospace"><mtext>project</mtext></mstyle><mstyle mathvariant="monospace"><mtext>project</mtext></mstyle></mfenced><mo>,</mo></mtd></mtr><mtr><mtd/><mtd><mrow><mfenced close=")" open="("><mstyle mathvariant="monospace"><mtext>public@Internal</mtext></mstyle><mstyle mathvariant="monospace"><mtext>public@Internal</mtext></mstyle></mfenced><mo>,</mo><mfenced close=")" open="("><mstyle mathvariant="monospace"><mtext>public</mtext></mstyle><mstyle mathvariant="monospace"><mtext>public</mtext></mstyle></mfenced><mo>}</mo></mrow></mtd></mtr></mtable></math>
</div>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>We further define the relation <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mo>≥</mo><mi>:</mi><mi>T</mi><mi>A</mi><mi>M</mi><mo>×</mo><mi>M</mi><mi>A</mi><mi>M</mi></math> as follows:</p>
</div>
<div class="openblock">
<div class="content">
<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" display="block"><mfrac><mrow><mo>∃</mo><mi>m</mi><mi>a</mi><msup><mi>m</mi><mi>'</mi></msup><mo>∈</mo><mi>M</mi><mi>A</mi><mi>M</mi><mi>:</mi><mi>t</mi><mi>a</mi><mi>m</mi><mo>=</mo><mi>m</mi><mi>a</mi><msup><mi>m</mi><mi>'</mi></msup><mo>∧</mo><mi>m</mi><mi>a</mi><msup><mi>m</mi><mi>'</mi></msup><mo>≥</mo><mi>m</mi><mi>a</mi><mi>m</mi></mrow><mrow><mi>t</mi><mi>a</mi><mi>m</mi><mo>≥</mo><mi>m</mi><mi>a</mi><mi>m</mi></mrow></mfrac></math>
</div>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>Less, greater then etc. are defined accordingly.</p>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="openblock definition">
<div class="content">
<div class="paragraph">
<p><a id="member_accessibility"></a><strong>Definition:</strong> <a href="#member_accessibility">Member Accessibility</a></p>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>The function</p>
</div>
<div class="openblock">
<div class="content">
<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" display="block"><msub><mi>α</mi><mi>m</mi></msub><mi>:</mi><mi>M</mi><mi>e</mi><mi>m</mi><mi>b</mi><mi>e</mi><mi>r</mi><mi>R</mi><mi>e</mi><mi>f</mi><mi>e</mi><mi>r</mi><mi>e</mi><mi>n</mi><mi>c</mi><mi>e</mi><mo>×</mo><mi>M</mi><mi>e</mi><mi>m</mi><mi>b</mi><mi>e</mi><mi>r</mi><mi>D</mi><mi>e</mi><mi>c</mi><mi>l</mi><mi>a</mi><mi>r</mi><mi>a</mi><mi>t</mi><mi>i</mi><mi>o</mi><mi>n</mi><mo>⇒</mo><mi>B</mi><mi>o</mi><mi>o</mi><mi>l</mi><mi>e</mi><mi>a</mi><mi>n</mi></math>
</div>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>computes if a given reference can access the member declaration that it
references.</p>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>Note that <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><msub><mi>α</mi><mi>m</mi></msub></math> and <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mi>b</mi><mi>i</mi><mi>n</mi><mi>d</mi></math> are different functions.
A reference can only bind to a declaration if it can access the declaration.
However, bind requires more condition to work (correct metatypes, no shadowing etc).</p>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>Formally, we define <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><msub><mi>α</mi><mi>m</mi></msub></math> for a given reference <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mi>r</mi></math> and member declaration <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mi>M</mi></math> as follows: <sup class="footnote">[<a id="_footnoteref_6" class="footnote" href="appendix_c_bibliography.html#_footnote_6" title="View footnote.">6</a>]</sup> <sup class="footnote">[<a id="_footnoteref_7" class="footnote" href="appendix_c_bibliography.html#_footnote_7" title="View footnote.">7</a>]</sup></p>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mfrac><mrow><mi>M</mi><mo>.</mo><mi>a</mi><mi>c</mi><mi>c</mi><mo>=</mo><mstyle mathvariant="monospace"><mtext>public</mtext></mstyle></mrow><mrow><msub><mi>α</mi><mi>m</mi></msub><mfenced close=")" open="("><mi>r</mi><mi>M</mi></mfenced></mrow></mfrac></math><br>
<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mfrac><mrow><mi>r</mi><mo>.</mo><mi>v</mi><mi>e</mi><mi>n</mi><mi>d</mi><mi>o</mi><mi>r</mi><mo>=</mo><mi>M</mi><mo>.</mo><mi>v</mi><mi>e</mi><mi>n</mi><mi>d</mi><mi>o</mi><mi>r</mi><mspace width="3.0mm"/><mi>M</mi><mo>.</mo><mi>a</mi><mi>c</mi><mi>c</mi><mo>=</mo><mstyle mathvariant="monospace"><mtext>public@Internal</mtext></mstyle></mrow><mrow><msub><mi>α</mi><mi>m</mi></msub><mfenced close=")" open="("><mi>r</mi><mi>M</mi></mfenced></mrow></mfrac></math><br>
<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mfrac><mrow><mi>r</mi><mo>.</mo><mi>o</mi><mi>w</mi><mi>n</mi><mi>e</mi><mi>r</mi><mo>∈</mo><mi>r</mi><mo>.</mo><mi>r</mi><mi>e</mi><mi>c</mi><mi>e</mi><mi>i</mi><mi>v</mi><mi>e</mi><mi>r</mi><mo>.</mo><mi>s</mi><mi>u</mi><mi>p</mi><mi>e</mi><msup><mi>r</mi><mo>*</mo></msup><mspace width="3.0mm"/><mi>M</mi><mo>.</mo><mi>a</mi><mi>c</mi><mi>c</mi><mo>=</mo><mstyle mathvariant="monospace"><mtext>protected</mtext></mstyle></mrow><mrow><msub><mi>α</mi><mi>m</mi></msub><mfenced close=")" open="("><mi>r</mi><mi>M</mi></mfenced></mrow></mfrac></math><br>
<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mfrac><mrow><mi>r</mi><mo>.</mo><mi>o</mi><mi>w</mi><mi>n</mi><mi>e</mi><mi>r</mi><mo>∈</mo><mi>r</mi><mo>.</mo><mi>r</mi><mi>e</mi><mi>c</mi><mi>e</mi><mi>i</mi><mi>v</mi><mi>e</mi><mi>r</mi><mo>.</mo><mi>s</mi><mi>u</mi><mi>p</mi><mi>e</mi><msup><mi>r</mi><mo>*</mo></msup><mspace width="3.0mm"/><mi>r</mi><mo>.</mo><mi>v</mi><mi>e</mi><mi>n</mi><mi>d</mi><mi>o</mi><mi>r</mi><mo>=</mo><mi>M</mi><mo>.</mo><mi>v</mi><mi>e</mi><mi>n</mi><mi>d</mi><mi>o</mi><mi>r</mi><mspace width="3.0mm"/><mi>M</mi><mo>.</mo><mi>a</mi><mi>c</mi><mi>c</mi><mo>=</mo><mstyle mathvariant="monospace"><mtext>protected@Internal</mtext></mstyle></mrow><mrow><msub><mi>α</mi><mi>m</mi></msub><mfenced close=")" open="("><mi>r</mi><mi>M</mi></mfenced></mrow></mfrac></math><br>
<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mfrac><mrow><mi>r</mi><mo>.</mo><mi>p</mi><mi>r</mi><mi>o</mi><mi>j</mi><mi>e</mi><mi>c</mi><mi>t</mi><mo>=</mo><mi>M</mi><mo>.</mo><mi>p</mi><mi>r</mi><mi>o</mi><mi>j</mi><mi>e</mi><mi>c</mi><mi>t</mi><mspace width="3.0mm"/><mi>M</mi><mo>.</mo><mi>a</mi><mi>c</mi><mi>c</mi><mo>=</mo><mstyle mathvariant="monospace"><mtext>project</mtext></mstyle></mrow><mrow><msub><mi>α</mi><mi>m</mi></msub><mfenced close=")" open="("><mi>r</mi><mi>M</mi></mfenced></mrow></mfrac></math><br>
<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mfrac><mrow><mi>r</mi><mo>.</mo><mi>m</mi><mi>o</mi><mi>d</mi><mi>u</mi><mi>l</mi><mi>e</mi><mo>=</mo><mi>r</mi><mo>.</mo><mi>m</mi><mi>o</mi><mi>d</mi><mi>u</mi><mi>l</mi><mi>e</mi><mspace width="3.0mm"/><mi>M</mi><mo>.</mo><mi>a</mi><mi>c</mi><mi>c</mi><mo>=</mo><mstyle mathvariant="monospace"><mtext>private</mtext></mstyle></mrow><mrow><msub><mi>α</mi><mi>m</mi></msub><mfenced close=")" open="("><mi>r</mi><mi>M</mi></mfenced></mrow></mfrac></math></p>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>If the type of the arguments is clear from the context, we simply write <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mi>α</mi><mfenced close=")" open="("><mi>r</mi><mi>M</mi></mfenced></math> instead of <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><msub><mi>α</mi><mi>m</mi></msub><mfenced close=")" open="("><mi>r</mi><mi>M</mi></mfenced></math>.</p>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>Although private members are accessible inside a module, it is not possible to redefine (override etc.) these members (see <a href="classifiers.html#_redefinition-of-members">Redefinition of Members</a>).</p>
</div>
<div class="openblock requirement">
<div class="content">
<div class="paragraph">
<p><a id="Req-IDE-4"></a><strong>Req. IDE-4:</strong> <a href="#Req-IDE-4">Default Member Access Modifiers</a> (ver. 1)</p>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>The following constraints for member access modifiers must hold:</p>
</div>
<div class="olist arabic">
<ol class="arabic">
<li>
<p>The <em>default modifier</em> for members of user-declared classes is <code>project</code>.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>The <em>default modifier</em> for members of interfaces is the same as the visibility of the interface itself, except for private interfaces.
For private interfaces, the default modifier for members is <code>project</code>.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>The modifier for enum literals is always <code>public</code>.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Private members of a classifier are visible and accessible within a module, i.e. you can access the private method of a class, for instance,
when the use of the class as receiver is in the same module where the class has been defined.
In case of inheritance, private members are visible if the host (e.g. the class) is in the same module as the provider (the extended class).
This also means that abstract members of a class are allowed to be defined private as they may be overridden within a module.</p>
</li>
</ol>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="exampleblock">
<div class="title">Example 3. Type and Member Access Modifiers</div>
<div class="content">
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content">
<pre class="highlight"><code class="language-n4js" data-lang="n4js">export project interface I {
project foo();
}
// This interface may be used publicly, but since the inherited method foo() is project visible only,
// it is not possible to implement that interface in other projects.
export public interface J extends I {
}
// Since the visibility of foo is set to public here, it is possible to implement this interface in other projects.
export public interface K extends I {
@Override public foo();
}
// Since foo is private, it is not possible to subclass the class in other modules. Still, it
// is possible to use it in other projects.
// XPECT noerrors --&gt;
export public abstract class C {
private abstract foo();
public static C instance() {
// return some default instance
...
}
}</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>As demonstrated in the following snippet, class <code>C</code> can be used but not subclassed in other modules:</p>
</div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content">
<pre class="highlight"><code class="language-n4js" data-lang="n4js">import C from "C"
// XPECT errors --&gt; "Cannot extend class C: cannot implement one or more non-accessible abstract members: method C.foo." at "C"
export public abstract class Sub extends C {
}
// XPECT noerrors --&gt;
var c: C = C.instance();</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>Members of non-visible types are, in general, not visible for a client.
Members may become visible, however, if they are accessed via a visible type which inherits these members.
The following examples demonstrate two different scenarios:</p>
</div>
<div class="exampleblock">
<div class="title">Example 4. Declaring type vs receiver type</div>
<div class="content">
<div class="paragraph">
<p>It is especially noteworthy that the declaring type of a member is
generally not considered for the accessibility of that member but only
the receiver type is relevant.</p>
</div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content">
<pre class="highlight"><code class="language-n4js" data-lang="n4js">class Base {
public m(b: Base): void {}
}
export public class ApiType extends Base {
}</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content">
<pre class="highlight"><code class="language-n4js" data-lang="n4js">import * as N from "Base";
var t = new N.ApiType();
// member can be accessed although type Base is not exported:
t.m(t);</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>The property access to the member <code>m</code> is valid because it fulfills the constraints for accessibility.
The receiver of the property access is <code>t</code> of type <code>ApiType</code>.
That type is exported and accessible.
Therefore, the inherited member <code>m</code> is also considered valid since it is also defined <code>public</code>.</p>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>This rule allows for defining a common functionality in module or project visible types that becomes accessible via exported, visible subtypes.</p>
</div>
<div class="exampleblock">
<div class="title">Example 5. Member Access and Type Access Interplay</div>
<div class="content">
<div class="paragraph">
<p>The following example demonstrates the behavior when
non-visible types are used as return types. In this case, all the
members of the non-visible types are not accessible, even if they have a
public access modifier.</p>
</div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content">
<pre class="highlight"><code class="language-n4js" data-lang="n4js">class A {
foo(): void{}
}
export public class C {
public getHidden(): A { return new A() };
}</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
<div class="listingblock">
<div class="content">
<pre class="highlight"><code class="language-n4js" data-lang="n4js">import * as Nfrom "A"
class Client {
f(): void {
var c = new N.C();
// XPECT noerrors --&gt; Getting an instance the hidden type is possible
var hidden = c.getHidden();
// XPECT errors --&gt; "The method foo is not visible." at "foo"
hidden.foo();
}
}</code></pre>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="sect3">
<h4 id="_valid-names"><a class="anchor" href="#_valid-names"></a><a class="link" href="#_valid-names">3.2.2. Valid Names</a></h4>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>For identifier and property names, the same constraints as in ECMAScript
[<a href="appendix_c_bibliography.html#ECMA11a">ECMA11a(p.S7.6)</a>]
[<a href="appendix_c_bibliography.html#ECMA11a">ECMA11a(p.S7.6.1.2)</a>]
[<a href="appendix_c_bibliography.html#ECMA11a">ECMA11a(p.S11.6)</a>] are applied.</p>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>Identifier names in N4JS are defined similar to [<a href="appendix_c_bibliography.html#ECMA11a">ECMA11a(p.S11.6)</a>], making it possible to even use reserved words (keywords etc.).
For some element types, errors or warnings are issued in order to prevent problems when using these names.</p>
</div>
<div class="openblock requirement">
<div class="content">
<div class="paragraph">
<p><a id="Req-IDE-5"></a><strong>Req. IDE-5:</strong> <a href="#Req-IDE-5">Forbidden Identifier Names in N4JS</a> (ver. 1)</p>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>In N4JS mode, errors are generated in the following cases:</p>
</div>
<div class="olist arabic">
<ol class="arabic">
<li>
<p>A name of a type equals</p>
<div class="olist loweralpha">
<ol class="loweralpha" type="a">
<li>
<p>an access modifier</p>
</li>
<li>
<p><code>set</code> or <code>get</code></p>
</li>
<li>
<p>an ECMAScript keyword</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>a boolean literal</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>the name of a base type</p>
</li>
</ol>
</div>
</li>
<li>
<p>The name of a function or function expression equals (but not the method)</p>
<div class="olist loweralpha">
<ol class="loweralpha" type="a">
<li>
<p>an ECMAScript keyword</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>a reserved future ECMAScript word</p>
</li>
</ol>
</div>
</li>
</ol>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="openblock requirement">
<div class="content">
<div class="paragraph">
<p><a id="Req-IDE-6"></a><strong>Req. IDE-6:</strong> <a href="#Req-IDE-6">Undesired Identifier Names in N4JS</a> (ver. 1)</p>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>In N4JS mode, warnings are generated in the following cases:</p>
</div>
<div class="olist arabic">
<ol class="arabic">
<li>
<p>The name of a member (of a non external type)</p>
<div class="olist loweralpha">
<ol class="loweralpha" type="a">
<li>
<p>equals the name of a base type <sup class="footnote">[<a id="_footnoteref_8" class="footnote" href="appendix_c_bibliography.html#_footnote_8" title="View footnote.">8</a>]</sup> but the type of the variable is different from that type</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>is not static nor const but starts with an upper case letter</p>
</li>
</ol>
</div>
</li>
<li>
<p>The name of a non-external N4 types (class, interface, enum) starts with a lower case letter</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>The name of a variable (incl. formal parameter or catch variable and fields)</p>
<div class="olist loweralpha">
<ol class="loweralpha" type="a">
<li>
<p>equals an N4JS keyword</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>equals the name of a base type but the type of the variable is different from that type</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>is not const but starts with an upper case letter</p>
</li>
</ol>
</div>
</li>
</ol>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="sect3">
<h4 id="_qualified-names"><a class="anchor" href="#_qualified-names"></a><a class="link" href="#_qualified-names">3.2.3. Qualified Names</a></h4>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>In N4JS source code, types can only be referenced using their simple name.
There is no such thing as a fully-qualified type name in N4JS or ECMAScript.
Types are uniquely identified by their simple name, maybe together with an import and the module specifier given there.
Clashes between simple names of imported type and locally declared types can be resolved by importing the type under an alias.</p>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>In some cases, however, we need to define references to types or even members.
For example, if we want to reference certain members in JSDoc comments or for unambiguous error messages.
For this reason, we formally define qualified names even if they cannot occur in source code.</p>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p><a href="#tab:typenames">Different forms of module and type specifiers.</a> shows the different names of a given type <code>C</code>, defined in a module
<code>M.n4js</code>, defined in a package <code>p</code> of a project <code>MyProject</code>.</p>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>Simple type names are used throughout N4JS code in order to refer to types.
The different forms of module specifiers are only used in import declarations in the string following the <code>from</code> keyword.</p>
</div>
<table id="tab:typenames" class="tableblock frame-all grid-all spread">
<caption class="title">Table 3. Different forms of module and type specifiers.</caption>
<colgroup>
<col style="width: 50%;">
<col style="width: 50%;">
</colgroup>
<thead>
<tr>
<th class="tableblock halign-left valign-top">Name</th>
<th class="tableblock halign-center valign-top">Example</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td class="tableblock halign-left valign-top"><p class="tableblock">Simple Type Name</p></td>
<td class="tableblock halign-center valign-top"><p class="tableblock"><code>C</code></p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tableblock halign-left valign-top"><p class="tableblock">(Plain) Module Specifier</p></td>
<td class="tableblock halign-center valign-top"><p class="tableblock"><code>p/M</code></p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tableblock halign-left valign-top"><p class="tableblock">Complete Module Specifier</p></td>
<td class="tableblock halign-center valign-top"><p class="tableblock"><code>MyProject/p/M</code></p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td class="tableblock halign-left valign-top"><p class="tableblock">Complete Type Specifier</p></td>
<td class="tableblock halign-center valign-top"><p class="tableblock"><code>MyProject/p/M.C</code></p></td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
</div>
<div class="sect3">
<h4 id="_name-duplicates"><a class="anchor" href="#_name-duplicates"></a><a class="link" href="#_name-duplicates">3.2.4. Name Duplicates</a></h4>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>There might be cases where two (or more) scopes created by different entities with the same (simple) name overlap.
Those situations can be referred to as shadowing, hiding, or obscuring.
While they are not the same, many of those cases are not allowed in N4JS.
For simplicity we refer to them all as shadowing or duplication (see below).
Rule of thumb is that N4JS allows everything that is allowed in JavaScript StrictMode.</p>
</div>
<div class="sect4">
<h5 id="_lexical-environment"><a class="anchor" href="#_lexical-environment"></a><a class="link" href="#_lexical-environment">3.2.4.1. Lexical Environment</a></h5>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>N4JS handles scopes similar to ECMAScript, so that function scope is applied to variables declared with <code>var</code> (and parameters), and block scope for variables is declared with <code>let</code> or <code>const</code>.
In general, ECMAScript defines <em>Lexical Environments</em> as a specification type used to define the association of Identifiers to specific variables and functions based upon the lexical nesting structure of ECMAScript code [<a href="appendix_c_bibliography.html#ECMA11a">ECMA11a(p.10.2)</a>].</p>
</div>
<div class="dlist">
<dl>
<dt class="hdlist1">Elements that introduce lexical environments: </dt>
<dd>
<p><code>FunctionDefinition</code>, <code>VariableDeclaration</code>, <code>CatchBlock</code>, <code>WithStatement</code>, <code>ImportDeclaration</code></p>
</dd>
<dt class="hdlist1">N4JS specific declarations: </dt>
<dd>
<p><code>N4ClassDeclaration</code>, <code>N4InterfaceDeclaration</code>,
<code>N4EnumDeclaration</code>, <code>N4MethodDeclaration</code>.</p>
</dd>
</dl>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>Additionally, a built-in lexical environment that defines global scope exists for every <code>Script</code>.</p>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>Since N4JS is extended (and a bit more strict) JS strict mode, <em>Object environment record</em>s created by <code>WithStatement</code> are not taken into account when resolving duplicates.
This applies to both N4JS mode and JS strict mode.
In unrestricted JS the <code>WithStatement</code> is allowed but duplicates are not validated.</p>
</div>
<div class="admonitionblock note">
<table>
<tr>
<td class="icon">
<i class="fa icon-note" title=""></i>
</td>
<td class="content">
In case of names introduced by <code>ImportDeclaration</code>s only <code>NamedImportSpecifiers</code>s are taken into account (their import name or its alias if available).
<code>WildcardImportSpecifiers</code>s are not taken into account.
Potential optimizations by compiler or user annotation are also not currently taken into account during analysis.
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</div>
</div>
<div class="sect4">
<h5 id="_duplicates-and-shadowing"><a class="anchor" href="#_duplicates-and-shadowing"></a><a class="link" href="#_duplicates-and-shadowing">3.2.4.2. Duplicates and Shadowing</a></h5>
<div class="openblock definition">
<div class="content">
<div class="paragraph">
<p><a id="shadowing_overriding_duplicates"></a><strong>Definition:</strong> <a href="#shadowing_overriding_duplicates">Shadowing Overriding Duplicates</a></p>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>Two elements with the same name declared in the same lexical environment (cf. [<a href="appendix_c_bibliography.html#ECMA11a">ECMA11a(p.S10.2.2.1)</a>] are called <em>duplicates</em>.
An element defined in an environment <em>shadows</em> all elements with the same name in outer environments.</p>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>In class hierarchies, a member with the same name as a member defined in a supertype is said to override the latter.
Overriding is discussed in <a href="classifiers.html#_redefinition-of-members">Redefinition of Members</a>.</p>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>For the following constraints, we make the following assumptions:</p>
</div>
<div class="ulist">
<ul>
<li>
<p>Names of function expressions or declarations are handles similar to locally declared elements in the function.
Function declarations are additionally declaring a name in their outer scope.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>The implicit formal parameter <code>arguments</code> is treated similar to declared formal parameters.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Formal parameters are defined in the lexical environment of a function, that is, they are defined in the same lexical environment as local <code>var</code>-variables or other declarations in that function.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>The "global" environment contains objects globally defined by the execution environment.</p>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="openblock requirement">
<div class="content">
<div class="paragraph">
<p><a id="Req-IDE-7"></a><strong>Req. IDE-7:</strong> <a href="#Req-IDE-7">Forbidden Duplicates</a> (ver. 1)</p>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>There must be no two elements defined in the same lexical environment with the same name,
that is, there must be no duplicates.</p>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="openblock requirement">
<div class="content">
<div class="paragraph">
<p><a id="Req-IDE-8"></a><strong>Req. IDE-8:</strong> <a href="#Req-IDE-8">Forbidden Shadowing</a> (ver. 1)</p>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>In general, shadowing is allowed in N4JS.
But it is not allowed in the following cases:</p>
</div>
<div class="olist arabic">
<ol class="arabic">
<li>
<p>No element defined in the standard global scope must be shadowed.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>There must be no function shadowing another function.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Elements defined in catch blocks must not shadow elements defined all parent non-catch-block environments.</p>
</li>
</ol>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div class="openblock requirement">
<div class="content">
<div class="paragraph">
<p><a id="Req-IDE-9"></a><strong>Req. IDE-9:</strong> <a href="#Req-IDE-9">Forbidden Names</a> (ver. 1)</p>
</div>
<div class="olist arabic">
<ol class="arabic">
<li>
<p>In the script environment, it is not allowed to use the name
’arguments’.<sup class="footnote">[<a id="_footnoteref_9" class="footnote" href="appendix_c_bibliography.html#_footnote_9" title="View footnote.">9</a>]</sup></p>
<div class="paragraph">
<p><a href="#fig-forbidden-shadowing">Forbidden Shadowing</a> shows nested lexical environments with named elements declared inside (all named <code>x</code> here), the forbidden cases are marked with arrows
(the numbers at the left side refer to the numbers in <a href="#Req-IDE-8">[Req-IDE-8]</a>.</p>
</div>
</li>
</ol>
</div>
<div id="fig-forbidden-shadowing" class="imageblock" style="text-align: center">
<div class="content">
<img src="chapters/03_names/fig/shadowing.png" alt="shadowing" width="50%">
</div>
<div class="title">Figure 1. Forbidden Shadowing</div>
</div>
<div class="paragraph">
<p>Rationale:</p>
</div>
<div class="ulist">
<ul>
<li>
<p>We expect only few named nested functions.
Since this is expected to be a rare case, no shadowing should occur there as this is maybe not expected by the programmer.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>It is typical that nested environments define local variables.
In particular helper variables (such as <code>i: number i</code> or <code>s: string</code> ) are expected to be used quite often.
Since this is a typical case, we allow shadowing for local variables.</p>
</li>
<li>
<p>Function declarations may shadow type declarations.
However, both entities are to be handled completely differently, so that an error will occur if the shadowing is ignored by the programmer anyway.</p>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
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